The first thing that comes to mind for most people when they think about ancient Egypt is the pyramids. These huge stone structures were used as royal tombs. While the pyramids at Giza are major tourist attractions today, they have also generated a lot of fanciful speculation by people who have little understanding of Egyptian history, archaeology, or religion. The eminent Egyptologist Barbara Mertz, in her book Temples, Tombs, & Hieroglyphs, writes:
“The people who do not know better are the pyramid mystics, who believe that the Great Pyramid is a gigantic prophecy in stone, built by a group of ancient adepts in magic. Egyptologists sometimes uncharitably refer to this group as ‘pyramidiots,’ but the school continues to flourish.”
The starting point for understanding the pyramids of ancient Egypt, and what they mean to the people who built them, is an examination of the origin of the pyramid.
Mastaba:
Before pyramids, the Egyptian nobility were buried in mastabas: tombs sunk into the desert and covered with a mud brick box with several chambers. The term “mastaba” is Arabic for bench and the tombs resemble a bench.
One example of a royal mastaba can be seen in the tomb of Aha, a pharaoh of the 2nd dynasty. His mastaba at Saqqara contains a subterranean structure with five rooms and a large above superstructure with 27 storage cells. In these cells were placed food and weapons. The superstructure was enclosed within two stout walls and coated with white stucco. Mastabas of this type were modeled after dwelling houses.
During the 4th dynasty, many nobles began to construct their mastabas out of stone. The fourth dynasty mastabas usually consisted of a single underground room with a recess for the stone or wooden coffin. There was often a small pit which was intended to hold the viscera removed during the mummification.
The pyramid evolved out of the mastaba during the 4th dynasty and was used by the royal families until the end of the Old Kingdom.
The Step Pyramid:
The pharaoh Djoser reigned from 2630 to 2611 BCE. His architect Imhotep, Chancellor and Great Seer (that is, high priest) of the sun god Ra, was responsible for constructing his tomb. It started off as a large mastaba, and then Imhotep had another mastaba placed on top of it, and then another on top of that, and so on until there were six steps. Built out of clay and stone, this step pyramid reached a height of 60 meters (197 feet).
The initial mastaba that forms the base of Djoser’s step pyramid was constructed in the traditional mastaba fashion: a crude core of roughly shaped stones with a fine limestone casing. As they went up, they used bigger and better blocks that leaned inward.
Sneferu’s Pyramids:
The first true pyramids were constructed for Sneferu who came to the throne about 2575 BCE. Sneferu became the greatest pyramid builder in Egyptian history by building not one, but three pyramids and laying the foundation for future Egyptian pyramids.
Sneferu’s first pyramid, built at Meidum, is basically a step pyramid. It was built with a series of stone courses laid at an inward slope. Better quality stone which was laid in regular courses formed the outer faces. One of the innovations at this pyramid which would become standard in later pyramids was the passage from the north face to the burial chamber. Unlike the earlier mastabas, however, the burial chamber was within the pyramid rather than being located under it.
Sneferu’s pyramid at Meidum is shown above.
In the 15th year of his reign, Sneferu abandoned the necropolis at Meidum due to problems with the foundation and moved about 40 km (25 miles) north to Dashur. Here he laid out a new necropolis. Here he constructed two pyramids: the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid.
When construction started at Dashur, there was no master blueprint for the classic pyramid with the slope of 52º or 53º. The older step pyramids had sides that sloped about 72º to 78º. The Bent Pyramid started out as a small structure with a slope of about 60º, but structural problems soon become apparent. A girdle was added about the stump of the pyramid with a slope of nearly 55º.
In the initial stages of construction, the traditional method of laying stones that sloped inward was followed. Even with the reduced angle, there were still problems. About half-way up, it was clear that the inward leaning courses increased stress on the pyramid. At this point, the builders changed to set the courses horizontally without the lean. From this point, the pyramid has a decreased slope of 43º to 44º which gives it a pronounced bend.
The Bent Pyramid is shown above.
The interior of the Bent Pyramid is unique in that it has two entry shafts: one from the north and one from the west. It also has two burial chambers.
About the 30th year of his reign, construction started on Sneferu’s third pyramid, the Red (or North) Pyramid. Having learned a great deal about pyramid construction, it is built with a slope of 43º from the beginning. The result is a neatly planned and executed construction. This is the first true pyramid in Egypt and served as Sneferu’s burial place. It was also the tallest stone structure in the world at the time.
Shown above is Sneferu’s Red Pyramid.
From high up on the Red Pyramid there is a long shaft (about 200 feet) that leads down into two antechambers. High up in the second antechamber there is a short passage to a burial chamber.
From the time of Sneferu through the end of the Old Kingdom the Pharaohs were buried in pyramids set in temple complexes.