The mandate system which was imposed by the victorious Allies of World War I on the people of the countries which are now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and Palestine was ostensibly to aid and assist them in making the transition from being almost ready for independence to being independent countries, and do so while taking into account the rights and wishes of the people in the mandated territories.
Of the three Middle East mandates - for Mesopotamia, for Syria and the Lebanon, and for Palestine - the mandate for Mesopotamia could be said to have been the only one successfully completed, in that the British assisted the people of Iraq in their transition to being an independent country.
Although how successfully this was done is debatable, as is whether or not this was done for the benefit of the people of Iraq or for the benefit of the British.
After three years of military occupation during and after World War I, the second and third being a civil administration under military occupation, the territories which are now Iraq were placed under the Mandatory administration of the British Government and remained under this administration for 12 years.
The first four years of this administration were under the general terms decided on by the Allies upon assigning the mandate to the British Government and the following eight years were according to the terms improvised by the Council of the League of Nations to suit the situation which the British Government had created in Iraq.
When the mandate ended, the Kingdom of Iraq became an independent country but heavily under the influence of the British Government and without a well-developed system of democracy, which resulted in more than half a century of multiple coups and varying degrees of autocratic rule which have left Iraq in its current situation.
This is a timeline of how the Iraq came to be an independent but troubled country under the mandate system.
By better understanding this period I believe that it is easier to better understand what has happened since the mandate era ended and is happening now in Iraq and in the region.
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This installment is background information on the mandate for Mesopotamia,
in preparation for the timeline which will be the next installment in the series.
• Terms
In order to understand the Mandate for Mesopotamia it is necessary to understand these terms.
Mesopotamia: Mesopotamia originally referred to the Ottoman Provinces of Basra and Baghdad. As the Ottoman Province of Mosul, the northern neighbor of the Province of Baghdad, was being included in the area under their administration the British began referring to the mandated territories as Iraq.
mandate: (‘m’ not ‘M’) The ‘tutelage’ of ‘colonies and territories which as a consequence of the late war (World War I) have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the States which formerly governed them and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world’ which is ‘entrusted to advanced nations’ for their ‘well-being and development’ or ‘until such time as they are able to stand alone’ - as described in Article 22, paragraphs 1, 2 and 4 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.
mandated territory: A colony or territory ‘inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world’ whose ‘tutelage’ has been ‘entrusted to [an] advanced nation’.
Mandatory: An ‘advanced nation’ ‘entrusted’ with the ‘tutelage’ of a mandated territory. ‘Mandatory Power’ is also sometimes used.
Mandate: (‘M’ not ‘m’) The formal written objectives and terms under which a Mandatory administered a mandated territory on behalf of the League of Nations - as described in Article 22, paragraph 8 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.
Tutelage: The capacity or activity of a guardian. The act or office of a guardian or tutor.
Guardian: One who looks after, protects, or defends. One who is legally responsible for the care and management of the person or property of an incompetent or a minor.
Tutor: One who gives additional, special, or remedial instruction.
Principal Allied Powers: The British Empire, the French Third Republic, the Empire of Japan, the Kingdom of Italy, and the United States of America - the major Allied Powers of World War I.
The Principal Allied Powers usually acted and made decisions together but were also able to act or make decisions individually or together with any, or all, of the other Principal Allied Powers.
The Principal Allied Powers assigned mandates to individual Principal Allied Powers, and had the power to determine the borders of mandated territories - as was announced in the San Remo Conference Resolution.
Allied Supreme Council: The collective decision making body of the Principal Allied Powers.
The Allied Supreme Council directed and controlled the post-war peace process and determined the disposition of the defeated World War I Central Powers - the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Kingdom of Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire - and their territories.
The Allied Supreme Council also determined the general objectives and terms under which each mandate would operate - as was also announced in the San Remo Conference Resolution.
The Empire of Japan often did not participate in the meetings of the Allied Supreme Council, and the United States generally did not participate in the decisions of the council regarding the Ottoman Empire as it had never declared war on the Ottoman Empire.
The Council of Ten: Referred to the Presidents or Prime Ministers and the Foreign Ministers of the five Principal Allied Powers who directed the Paris Peace Conference and made or approved all major decisions at the conference. Later the council was reorganized and became known as the Council of Four - the heads of state of the United States, France, the United Kingdom and Italy.
Council of the League of Nations: The executive decision making body of the League of Nations. The original permanent members of the Council of the League of Nations (Britain, France, Italy and Japan) were also members of the Allied Supreme Council. The United States was going to be the fifth member of the Council but never became a member of the League of Nations.
The Mandate for each mandated territory was approved by the Council of the League of Nations before it went into effect - as was described in Article 22, paragraph 8 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.
Mandatory Mesopotamia: A recognized civil governing entity created by the assignment of the mandate for Mesopotamia to the United Kingdom by the Principal Allied Powers and the acceptance of the mandate by the United Kingdom.
After taking over from the civil administration which had been operating under the British military occupation of the territories, this entity, at first, exercised its governing authority directly and acted according to the general terms which had been determined for the mandate by the Allied Supreme Council.
Full and final authority was held by the High Commissioner for Mesopotamia who was the representative of the King of the United Kingdom, and by extension the representative of the British Government.
Later this entity continued its activities on behalf of the League of Nations under the supervision of the Council of the League of Nations according to the terms of the Mandate for Mesopotamia, but this began only after the Mandate had been approved by the Council of the League of Nations.
The Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire: Even though people of many different races, religions and ethnicities lived in the area, during and after World War I the territories of the Ottoman Empire south of what is now the Republic of Turkey were referred to in this manner.
The Sykes-Picot Agreement:
The allocation of British and French interests in, or control over, the territories of Mandatory Mesopotamia as described in the agreement:
The Ottoman Province of Basra and most of the Ottoman Province of Baghdad were included in the British red area mentioned in article two of the agreement.
The desert areas west of the Ottoman Provinces of Basra and Baghdad and an area which included a strip of land north of the city of Baghdad along the northern border of the Ottoman Province of Baghdad together with a strip of land along the southern border of the Ottoman Province of Mosul were included in the British area (b) mentioned in article one of the agreement.
The remainder of the Ottoman Province of Mosul was included in the French area (a) mentioned in article one of the agreement.
• Excerpts from Documents Relevant to the Mandate for Mesopotamia
The Sykes-Picot Agreement
May 16, 1916
Articles 1 and 2:
It is accordingly understood between the French and British governments:
One
That France and Great Britain are prepared to recognize and protect an independent Arab state or a confederation of Arab states in the areas (a) and (b) marked on the annexed map, under the suzerainty of an Arab chief.
That in area (a) France, and in area (b) Great Britain, shall have priority of right of enterprise and local loans. That in area (a) France, and in area (b) Great Britain, shall alone supply advisers or foreign functionaries at the request of the Arab state or confederation of Arab states.
Two
That in the blue area France, and in the red area Great Britain, shall be allowed to establish such direct or indirect administration or control as they desire and as they may think fit to arrange with the Arab state or confederation of Arab states.
The Covenant of the League of Nations
Approved by the Paris Peace Conference - April 28, 1919
Came into effect - January 10, 1920
Article 22, paragraphs 1, 2, 4 and 8:
ARTICLE 22.
To those colonies and territories which as a consequence of the late war have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the States which formerly governed them and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world, there should be applied the principle that the well-being and development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilisation and that securities for the performance of this trust should be embodied in this Covenant.
The best method of giving practical effect to this principle is that the tutelage of such peoples should be entrusted to advanced nations who by reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical position can best undertake this responsibility, and who are willing to accept it, and that this tutelage should be exercised by them as Mandatories on behalf of the League.
...
Certain communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognized subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory.
...
The degree of authority, control, or administration to be exercised by the Mandatory shall, if not previously agreed upon by the Members of the League, be explicitly defined in each case by the Council.
The Treaty of Versailles
Signed - June 28, 1919
Came into effect - January 10, 1920
Preamble:
TREATY OF PEACE WITH GERMANY
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, THE BRITISH EMPIRE, FRANCE, ITALY and JAPAN,
These Powers being described in the present Treaty as the Principal Allied and Associated Powers,
...
The San Remo Conference Resolution
April 25, 1920
Section (b), paragraph 1:
The High Contracting Parties agree that Syria and Mesopotamia shall, in accordance with the fourth paragraph of Article 22, Part I (Covenant of the League of Nations), be provisionally recognized as independent States, subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. The boundaries of the said States will be determined, and the selection of the Mandatories made, by the Principal Allied Powers.
Section (c), paragraph 1:
[Translation] The mandatories chosen by the Principal Allied Powers are: France for Syria, and Great Britain for Mesopotamia and Palestine.
The Treaty of Sevres
Signed - August 10, 1920
Did not come into effect
Superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne
Preamble:
THE TREATY OF PEACE WITH TURKEY
THE BRITISH EMPIRE, FRANCE, ITALY AND JAPAN,
These Powers being described in the present Treaty as the Principal Allied Powers;
...
Articles 94, 95, 96, 97 and 132:
SECTION VII.
SYRIA, MESOPOTAMIA, PALESTINE.
ARTICLE 94.
The High Contracting Parties agree that Syria and Mesopotamia shall, in accordance with the fourth paragraph of Article 22. Part I (Covenant of the League of Nations), be provisionally recognised as independent States subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone.
A Commission shall be constituted within fifteen days from the coming into force of the present Treaty to trace on the spot the frontier line described in Article 27, II (2) and (3). This Commission will be composed of three members nominated by France, Great Britain and Italy respectively, and one member nominated by Turkey; it will be assisted by a representative of Syria for the Syrian frontier, and by a representative of Mesopotamia for the Mesopotamian frontier.
The determination of the other frontiers of the said States, and the selection of the Mandatories, will be made by the Principal Allied Powers.
ARTICLE 95.
The High Contracting Parties agree to entrust, by application of the provisions of Article 22, the administration of Palestine, within such boundaries as may be determined by the Principal Allied Powers, to a Mandatory to be selected by the said Powers. The Mandatory will be responsible for putting into effect the declaration originally made on November 2, 1917, by the British Government, and adopted by the other Allied Powers, in favour of the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.
The Mandatory undertakes to appoint as soon as possible a special Commission to study and regulate all questions and claims relating to the different religious communities. In the composition of this Commission the religious interests concerned will be taken into account. The Chairman of the Commission will be appointed by the Council of the League of Nations.
ARTICLE 96.
The terms of the mandates in respect of the above territories will be formulated by the Principal Allied Powers and submitted to the Council of the League of Nations for approval.
ARTICLE 97.
Turkey hereby undertakes, in accordance with the provisions of Article 132, to accept any decisions which may be taken in relation to the questions dealt with in this Section.
...
SECTION XIII.
GENERAL PROVISIONS.
ARTICLE 132.
Outside her frontiers as fixed by the present Treaty Turkey hereby renounces in favour of the Principal Allied Powers all rights and title which she could claim on any ground over or concerning any territories outside Europe which are not otherwise disposed of by the present Treaty.
Turkey undertakes to recognise and conform to the measures which may be taken now or in the future by the Principal Allied Powers, in agreement where necessary with third Powers, in order to carry the above stipulation into effect.
The Draft of the Mandate for Mesopotamia
Submitted to the League of Nations - December 7, 1920
Superseded by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of Alliance of 1922
Preamble, Recital 1:
WHEREAS by Article 132 of the Treaty of Peace signed at Sevres on the tenth day of August, 1920, Turkey renounced in favour of the Principal Allied Powers all rights and title over Mesopotamia, and whereas by Article 94 of the said treaty the High Contracting Parties agreed that Mesopotamia should, in accordance with the fourth paragraph of Article 22 of Part I (Covenant of the League of Nations), be provisionally recognised as an independent State, subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as it is able to stand alone, and that the determination of the frontiers of Mesopotamia, other than those laid down in the said treaty, and the selection of the Mandatory would be made by the Principal Allied Powers; and
Article 1:
Article 1.
The Mandatory will frame within the shortest possible time, not exceeding three years from the date of the coming into force of this Mandate, an Organic Law for Mesopotamia. This Organic Law shall be framed in consultation with the native authorities, and shall take account of the rights, interests and wishes of all the populations inhabiting the mandated territory. It shall contain provisions designed to facilitate the progressive development of Mesopotamia as an independent State. Pending the coming into effect of the organic law, the administration of Mesopotamia shall be conducted in accordance with the spirit of this Mandate.
The Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of Alliance of 1922
Signed - October 10, 1922
Came into effect - December 19, 1924
Preamble, Recitals 2, 3 and 4:
Whereas His Britannic Majesty has recognised Faisal Ibn Hussein as constitutional King of Iraq : and
Whereas His Majesty the King of Iraq considers that it is to the interests of Iraq and will conduce to its rapid advancement that he should conclude a Treaty with His Britannic Majesty on the basis of alliance : and
Whereas His Britannic Majesty is satisfied that the relations between himself and His Majesty the King of Iraq can now be better defined by such a Treaty of Alliance than by any other means :
Articles 1, 4 and 10:
Article I.
At the request of His Majesty the King of Iraq, His Britannic Majesty undertakes subject to the provisions of this Treaty to provide the State of Iraq with such advice and assistance as may be required during the period of the present Treaty, without prejudice to her national sovereignty. His Britannic Majesty shall be represented in Iraq by a High Commissioner and Consul-General assisted by the necessary staff.
...
Article IV.
Without prejudice to the provisions of Articles XVII and XVIII of this Treaty, His Majesty the King of Iraq agrees to be guided by the advice of His Britannic Majesty tendered through the High Commissioner on all important matters affecting the international and financial obligations and interests of His Britannic Majesty for the whole period of this Treaty. His Majesty the King of Iraq will fully consult the High Commissioner on what is conducive to a sound financial and fiscal policy and will ensure the stability and good organisation of the finances of the Iraq Government so long as that Government is under financial obligations to the Government of His Britannic Majesty.
...
Article X.
The High Contracting Parties agree to conclude separate agreements to secure the execution of any treaties, agreements or undertakings which His Britannic Majesty is under obligation to see carried out in respect of Iraq. His Majesty the King of Iraq undertakes to bring in any legislation necessary to ensure the execution of these agreements. Such agreements shall be communicated to the Council of the League of Nations.
The Treaty of Lausanne
Signed - July 24, 1923
Came into effect - August 6, 1924
Preamble:
TREATY OF PEACE WITH TURKEY
THE BRITISH EMPIRE, FRANCE, ITALY, JAPAN, GREECE, ROUMANIA and the SERB-CROAT-SLOVENE STATE,
of the one part,
and TURKEY,
of the other part; Being united in the desire to bring to a final close the state of war which has existed in the East since 1914,
Being anxious to re-establish the relations of friendship and commerce which are essential to the mutual well-being of their respective peoples,
And considering that these relations must be based on respect for the independence and sovereignty of States,
Have decided to conclude a Treaty for this purpose, and have appointed as their Plenipotentiaries:
...
Articles 3, 16 and 27:
ARTICLE 3.
From the Mediterranean to the frontier of Persia, the frontier of Turkey is laid down as follows:
(1) With Syria:
The frontier described in Article 8 of the Franco-Turkish Agreement of the 20th October, 1921
(2) With Iraq:
The frontier between Turkey and Iraq shall be laid down in friendly arrangement to be concluded between Turkey and Great Britain within nine months.
In the event of no agreement being reached between the two Governments within the time mentioned, the dispute shall be referred to the Council of the League of Nations.
The Turkish and British Governments reciprocally undertake that, pending the decision to be reached on the subject of the frontier, no military or other movement shall take place which might modify in any way the present state of the territories of which the final fate will depend upon that decision.
...
ARTICLE 16.
Turkey hereby renounces all rights and title whatsoever over or respecting the territories situated outside the frontiers laid down in the present Treaty and the islands other than those over which her sovereignty is recognised by the said Treaty, the future of these territories and islands being settled or to be settled by the parties concerned.
The provisions of the present Article do not prejudice any special arrangements arising from neighbourly relations which have been or may be concluded between Turkey and any limitrophe countries.
...
ARTICLE 27.
No power or jurisdiction in political, legislative or administrative matters shall be exercised outside Turkish territory by the Turkish Government or authorities, for any reason whatsoever, over the nationals of a territory placed under the sovereignty or protectorate of the other Powers signatory of the present Treaty, or over the nationals of a territory detached from Turkey.
It is understood that the spiritual attributions of the Moslem religious authorities are in no way infringed.
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• The Series
The Arabian Peninsula during and after World War I
• Treaties, Resolutions, Etc.
The Sykes Picot Agreement - May 16, 1916
The Proclamation of Baghdad - March 19, 1917
The Declaration to the Seven - June 16, 1918
The Anglo-French Declaration - November 7, 1918
Draft Resolutions in Reference to Mandatories - January 30, 1919
The Covenant of the League of Nations - April 28, 1919
Memorandum of Agreement at San Remo - April 24, 1920
The San Remo Resolution - April 25, 1920
The Draft of the Mandate for Mesopotamia - December 7, 1920
The Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of Alliance of 1922 - October 10, 1922
• Notes
I used many sources to collect this information and there is no way I can list all of them.
I have tried to present the information so that anyone who wants to look for more information can do searches easily.
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