In 1877 the United States army under the leadership of General O.O. Howard, who was called “America’s Christian General”, went to war against the Nez Perce. The five autonomous non-treaty Nez Perce bands selected Looking Glass, the leader of the Asotin band, as their War Chief.
This War Chief started life known as Allalimya Takamin around 1823. His father’s name was Looking Glass, a name which came from a small trade mirror that he wore as a pendant. When Looking Glass died 40 years later the pendant, the name “Looking Glass”, and leadership of the Asotin band passed to his son, Allalimya Takamin, who from that point on was called Looking Glass.
Michael Turek, in his biography of Looking Glass in Notable Native Americans, writes:
“A proud and opinionated man standing six feet tall, Looking Glass was a warrior and a buffalo hunter who was familiar with the northern plains hunting grounds.”
By 1863, American gold miners had illegally invaded the Nez Perce reservation in Idaho. As usual, the American government, rather than forcing the squatters to leave, took the position that Indians shouldn’t have gold. It forced a new treaty on the Nez Perce in which they lost the portions of the reservation which might contain gold.
In signing the new treaty in 1863, one of the Nez Perce leaders, Lawyer, reminded the Americans that the Nez Perce had not yet received any of the funds promised them in the earlier 1855 treaty. The Americans promised to investigate the matter and speed up payment. There is no record of the funds promised in either the 1855 or the 1863 treaties ever reaching the Nez Perce.
Looking Glass also attended that 1863 treaty council but refused to sign the new treaty. His father had attended the 1855 Walla Walla treaty council and had refused to sign that treaty.
By 1877, it was clear that the United States intended to go to war against the non-treaty Nez Perce bands and to force them to convert to Christianity. The non-treaty Nez Perce chiefs met in the Wallowa Valley, Oregon, to discuss what they could do to avoid war with the Americans. Among the chiefs in attendance were Chief Joseph, Eagle from the Light, Looking Glass, White Bird, and Toohoolhoolzote.
The leaders of the non-treaty bands then met with General O.O. Howard, who felt that it was his duty as an American officer and a Christian to force the non-treaty bands into becoming Christian. He opened the council by having a Christian Nez Perce speak a Christian prayer. Howard then told the Nez Perce:
“I am here to put you on the Lapwai Reservation, and this I shall do or go to war with you.”
By the end of the council, all of the Indians were convinced that General Howard wanted to go to war against them and that he was only looking for an excuse. They were determined not to give him that excuse. Soon, however, Howard had the excuse he needed, and the war began.
Looking Glass was determined to stay out of the war. Most of the people in his band were Dreamers (members of the American Indian religious movement that the Americans had vowed to destroy) but Looking Glass had convinced them that they had nothing to gain by going to war. However, General Howard ordered Captain Stephen Whipple to arrest Nez Perce leader Looking Glass and his band and then turn them over to Idaho volunteers. In his book Children of Grace: The Nez Perce War of 1877, Bruce Hampton writes:
“Precisely what prompted Howard to take this action that was to become one of his gravest mistakes of the war is unclear. He seems to have known that Looking Glass had played no part in the settlers’ murder.”
The Nez Perce soon spotted the American soldiers moving toward the village. Bruce Hampton reports:
“The band of 40 warriors and 120 women and children was prosperous with horses and cattle, vegetable gardens, and even several milk cows.”
Looking Glass sent a party to tell the soldiers that they were peaceful, but the soldiers wanted to kill Looking Glass and began firing despite the white flag. The soldiers rode into the Nez Perce village, shooting, rampaging, and looting. They destroyed everything they could and then set the lodges on fire.
Captain Whipple would report that Looking Glass had been given an opportunity to surrender, that he had initially promised to surrender, but ultimately refused which led to the attack on the village. In his book The Nez Perce Indians and the Opening of the Northwest, Alvin Josephy reports:
“But Whipple never talked to Looking Glass, or gave the Indians an opportunity to convince him of their genuine desire to stay out of the war.”
After the soldiers left the destroyed village, the Nez Perce returned to gather what possessions they could salvage. Looking Glass, now burning with hatred against the savage soldiers, joined the war
There were now five bands in the war, each with its own leader – Joseph, White Bird, Looking Glass, Toohoolhoolzote, and Husishusis Kute. There is no unified command. Each band was autonomous, and any warrior might follow any war chief. The primary focus of the chiefs was to simply stay out of the way of the army.
Following the Battle of Clearwater River in which the army opened fire with a four-inch howitzer and two gatling guns, a council of the chiefs discussed their options. Michael Turek reports:
“Looking Glass urged the people to cross the Lolo Trail and continue traveling east to the buffalo country of the Crow tribe, with whom they were friendly. He knew the country, having hunted buffalo with the Crows, and he believed they would welcome the Nez Percés.”
The council of chiefs and warriors selected Looking Glass to become their leader. In his book Encyclopedia of American Indian Wars, 1492-1890, Jerry Keenan writes:
“Although Joseph has come to be thought of as the leader of the Nez Perce on their epic flight for freedom, it was Looking Glass who directed their actions against the pursuing soldiers.”
With 200 warriors, 550 women and children, nearly 3,000 horses, and several hundred dogs, they started up the Lolo Trail across the Bitterroot Mountains and into Flathead territory in Western Montana.
Many Nez Perce felt that Montana was a separate region from Idaho and that the army would not follow them there. With Looking Glass in supreme command, the non-treaty Nez Perce bands decided to leave the war behind in Idaho and cross over into Montana. The Nez Perce felt that they would be able to find peace in Montana. They followed the Lolo Trail which for centuries served as a road to the buffalo grounds of the Great Plains.
In Montana, however, soldiers who were constructing Fort Missoula were sent to stop the Nez Perce bands. At the narrowest part of the Lolo Canyon, a group of 30 soldiers and about 200 volunteers constructed a barrier about three feet high using sticks and logs. They dug rifle pits to provide additional protection. They then loaded their guns and waited for the “hostile” Indians.
Nez Perce scouts spotted the make-shift fort when they were about 20 miles out. They proceeded cautiously and the main body camped about four miles away. The Nez Perce were not seeking war or conflict here and were rather surprised to find soldiers waiting for them.
The next day, Looking Glass and Whitebird, accompanied by Delaware Jim as their translator, approached Fort Fizzle. They explained to Captain Charles Rawn that they had peaceful intentions and wanted simply to pass through the Bitterroot Valley. While Captain Rawn agreed that he would grant them passage, he stipulated that they must surrender their arms, ammunition, and horses. Once again, the chiefs faced what they felt were unreasonable demands by the American military. They realized that Rawn was asking for unconditional surrender and that a fight would have negative consequences for both sides.
The next day, Looking Glass and Delaware Jim returned to meet with Captain Rawn. Looking Glass again told the captain that the Nez Perce were peaceful, and Rawn reiterated his demands to surrender their guns, ammunition, and horses. Looking Glass indicated that he would discuss the matter with the other chiefs and left.
In the meantime, the Nez Perce broke camp and moved up a steep narrow ravine that runs north of Lolo Creek. With skills acquired by life in the mountains and plateaus, Nez Perce elders, children, and the wounded climbed the ridge with their herds of horses and headed east, outflanking the soldiers. A screen of warriors appeared along the crest of the ridge just north of Fort Fizzle and taunted the soldiers below. W. R. Logan, who was stationed at the breastworks, later reported:
“About ten o’clock we heard singing, apparently above our heads. Upon looking up we discover the Indians passing along the side of the cliff, where we thought a goat could not pass, much less an entire tribe of Indians with all their impedimenta. The entire band dropped into the valley beyond us and then proceeded up the Bitter Root.”
The Americans reported that the Nez Perce were in good humor, cracking jokes, and being amused at the way they fooled the soldiers. While Captain Rawn attempted to catch up with the Nez Perce, all of his volunteers had deserted.
In Montana’s Bitterroot Valley the band met with the Flathead, their long-time allies and friends. When Looking Glass met with Flathead Chief Charlo, he extended his hand in friendship, but Charlo refused it. The Flathead refused to assist the Nez Perce and they cast their lot with the Americans. However, the Flathead agreed to let the bands camp in the valley and pass through the area as long as it was done peacefully.
The Nez Perce passed through the Bitterroot without incident, purchasing supplies from some of the American stores. Following the advice of Looking Glass, the bands then dropped south to take the trail through the Big Hole valley and from there to the land of their old allies and friends, the Crow.
At the Big Hole in Montana, Looking Glass was convinced that they were far ahead of the army and were safe. Looking Glass did not post scouts at the camp. This camp site – called the Place of the Ground Squirrels – had been traditionally used by Nez Perce hunting parties on their way to the buffalo grounds. While many of the people – including the warriors – relaxed at this familiar place, Wotolen, a respected medicine man and prophet, dreamt of many soldiers and some felt that this was a bad sign.
The army surprised them, and many Nez Perce were killed, including 12 of their best warriors. The people blamed Looking Glass for lulling them into a false sense of security. Poker Joe now assumed leadership.
After passing through Yellowstone National Park and evading the American army, the Nez Perce engaged in a battle with the 7th Cavalry at Canyon Creek north of the Yellowstone River. At Canyon Creek, a number of Nez Perce horses were captured by Crow warriors who were riding with the Americans. It was then clear that there would be no refuge among the Crow.
The Nez Perce chiefs decided to turn north, planning to join Sitting Bull’s Sioux in Canada. In council Looking Glass berated Poker Joe for pushing the people too hard. He argued that Canada—the Old Woman Country—was only a few days ahead and that the people needed short days and long camps to build their strength. Poker Joe argued that this was not the time to rest, but the other chiefs were convinced that there was no longer a reason to hurry. Poker Joe relinquished his leadership position to Looking Glass. Poker Joe told Looking Glass:
“You can lead. I am trying to save the people, doing my best to cross into the Old Woman Country before the soldiers find us. You can take control, but I think we will all be caught and killed.”
A few miles from Canada, in the Bear Paw Mountains, the bands stopped to rest. Historian Jerome Greene, in his book Beyond Bear’s Paw: The Nez Perce Indians in Canada, writes:
“It was ground well known to them as Tsanim Alikos Pah (Place of the Manure Fires), and they knew that Canada lay but forty miles away.”
In the morning, Wotolen told the people that he had had a dream about this place and that in the dream the sky had been dark with the smoke of battle and that the waters of the creek were running red with blood.
Scouts reported that they had seen the troops coming and the Nez Perce began to hurriedly pack. Looking Glass told them that there was no hurry, that there was plenty of time. The 7th Cavalry, however, soon attacked, killing 22 Nez Perce, including Poker Joe.
The American siege on the Nez Perce camp lasted five days. In the final engagement, Looking Glass thought that he had spotted the arrival of Sioux reinforcements. He moved forward to verify this and was struck in the face by a soldier’s bullet and killed. He was the last warrior killed in the battle.
Indians 101/201
This series presents a variety of American Indian stories. Indians 201 is an expansion of an earlier essay. More biographies from this series:
Indians 101: Little Turtle, Miami war leader
Indians 101: Cornplanter, Seneca leader
Indians 101: Joseph Brant, Mohawk leader
Indians 101: Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, Writer, Musician, and Activist
Indians 101: Susette La Flesche, Indian Activist
Indians 101: Sacagawea (Sacajawea)
Indians 201: Sarah (Sally) Ainse, Oneida trader
Indians 201: Eschawamahu, Yavapai messiah