In the governmental bureaucracy of the United States, the administration of Indian affairs was under the Secretary of the Interior, a political appointee. However, during the nineteenth century, the United States Army actually shaped much of American Indian policy through its actions. From the military viewpoint, American Indian nations were all potential enemies and, therefore, the application of force was more important than diplomacy.
Briefly described below are some of the events from 150 years ago, in 1873, involving American Indians and the U.S. Army.
Making Chiefs
In general, the United States preferred to deal with dictatorships rather than democracies. Since almost no Indian nations were dictatorships, this meant that the United States simply appointed the chiefs with whom they negotiated. In this way, the United States only had to deal with a handful of Indian leaders, leaders who tended to be agreeable to American interests as they had been appointed by American officials.
In Arizona, General George Crook appointed Coquannathacka as head chief for all the Yavapai bands. In his book Surviving Conquest: A History of the Yavapai Peoples, historian Timothy Braatz puts it this way:
“Accustomed to Euro-American military and political traditions of strict hierarchy and official authority, Crook and his fellow officers preferred dealing with a single, preeminent leader, one with the authority to speak for those below him and with real power to enforce his decisions, the equivalent of a Yavapai governor, commanding officer, or head chief.”
Unfortunately for the Americans, while Coquannathacka was a respected elder, he had little interest in cooperating with Crook. In addition, he was not much of a talker. When Coquannathacka declined the position, the General Crook appointed Motha (later known as Mojave Charlie or Captain Charlie) as head chief. The Americans gave him an Army officer’s uniform, complete with a saber and black hat, as a symbol of his status as head chief. Timothy Braatz reports:
“Motha could parade about in his new uniform—which he did daily—but he still could not speak for or command the Rio Verde population.”
Healthcare
In Arizona, an army surgeon on the Rio Verde Reservation doled out his entire supply of quinine to the sick Yavapais. When a new supply arrived, the Yavapais besieged the doctor for more as it had proved to be effective. This new medicine did not compete with older Yavapai healing practices. The medicine men (basemachas) would chant and dance over their ailing patients and then administer quinine and other drugs which they had obtained from the doctor (who was often in attendance).
The army surgeon, Dr. Corbusier, was accepted by the basemachas as a fellow healer and was often presented with gifts of gratitude and invited to sit among them at ceremonials.
Modoc
Following the 1872 Modoc War, 153 Modocs were shipped from the Klamath Reservation in Oregon to the Quapaw Agency in Oklahoma. The Modoc were sent to Oklahoma as prisoners of war. In an article in the Chronicles of Oklahoma, Linda Parker reports:
“The Modocs, uninformed of their destination, poorly fed and clothed, were later praised for their cooperation and good behavior during the removal.”
In California, a group of 17 Modoc men, women, and children peacefully surrendered to the army. They were loaded into a large wagon and transported toward the Klamath Reservation without a military escort. The wagon was stopped by the Oregon Volunteers. A little later, masked men stopped the wagon, killed four Modoc men, and wounded a Modoc woman. The army made no effort to catch the killers.
Black Hills
In South Dakota, General Philip Sheridan received permission from President Grant and the War Department to build a fort in the Black Hills. According to historian Alvin Josephy, in his chapter in Legacy: New Perspectives on the Battle of the Little Bighorn:
“This was serious, for it was not a trespass of the unceded lands, but an invasion of the most sacred part of the permanent Sioux reservation, in blatant disregard of the 1868 treaty.”
Buffalo
On the Southern Plains, non-Indian buffalo hunters (known as “runner”) were crossing into Comanche territory to hunt and the army did nothing to stop them. According to historian Pekka Hamalainen, in his book The Comanche Empire:
“By now the army had adopted a proactive role in the bison’s destruction, providing protection for hunting squads and supplying them with equipment and ammunition—‘all you could use, all you wanted, more than you needed,’ as one runner marveled.”
Only 28% of the 1.2 million buffalo hides shipped east between 1872 and 1873 were supplied by Indians. According to sociologist Alan Klein, in his chapter in The Political Economy of North American Indians:
“Simply put, Native Americans were no longer the sole, or even the primary, providers of buffalo products in the hide trade.”
Fort
In Arizona, the Army constructed Fort Lowell in present-day Tucson directly on top of the ancient Hohokam village which archaeologists later called the Hardy Site.
Apaches
In Texas, an Apache war party attacked a Nineth Cavalry detachment carrying mail from Fort Davis to Fort Bliss. In a brief fight the Apaches killed two soldiers and the soldiers reported that several Apache warriors were killed.
In Arizona, the army with the help of Apache scouts attempted to capture or kill a band of Apache led by Delshay. In one skirmish, the army troops surprised an Apache camp at dawn, killing 15 and destroying the wickiups. In another attack on an Apache camp near Cave Creek, the soldiers killed 9 Apaches and destroyed much of the Apache’s food supply.
Lakota Sioux
In North Dakota, Lakota warriors attacked soldiers from Fort Abraham Lincoln on several occasions. Fort Abraham Lincoln, formerly Fort McKean, had been recently expanded when a war party of about 100 Lakotas attacked. The soldiers reported that they killed one and wounded three. A little more than a month later, the Lakotas attacked again, and the soldiers reported that they killed two.
Yavapai
In Arizona, as a part of General George Crook’s war against the Yavapai, soldiers attacked the camp of Yavapai headman Notokel. While Notokel and ten others escaped, eight Yavapais were killed and all of their belongings destroyed.
Near Fort McDowell, the soldiers attacked a Kwevkepaya Yavapai camp, killing nine and wounding three. Shortly after this, Notokel, two children, and one woman were shot by the soldiers.
In Arizona, Wipukepa Yavapai headman Tecoomthaya moved his people to the extreme north of their territory to escape General George Crook’s campaign against them. However, a force of U.S. soldiers with the aid of Pai scouts tracked them down and attacked them without warming. The Yavapais were not given the option of surrender. While most of the Yavapais escaped, the soldiers burned all of their supplies and food.
Over a period of seven months, General Crook’s soldiers kill more than 250 Indians.
Railroad
In Montana, the Northern Pacific railroad’s military escort under the command of Lt. Col. George A. Custer was attacked by about 350 Sioux and Northern Cheyenne under the leadership of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. The Sioux were poorly armed and inflicted few casualties on the army.
Lt. Col. Custer organized a charge that scattered the attacking Indians. In her book Montana Battlefields 1806-1877: Native Americans and the U.S. Army at War, Barbara Fifer reports:
“Winning this skirmish gave the colonel a deep, and ultimately deadly, belief that the Sioux and Cheyennes were ‘cowardly’ and one good charge was all it took to beat them.”
Using the skills of Arikara scout Bloody Knife, Custer’s troops tracked the war party to the mouth of the Bighorn River. Here warriors under the leadership of Crazy Horse again attacked and again Custer charged and drove them back.
More American Indian histories
Indians 101: Southwestern Indian Reservations 150 years ago, 1873
Indians 101: Indian reservations in Washington, Oregon, and California 150 years ago, 1873
Indians 101: American Indians and religion 150 years ago, 1873
Indians 101: Visiting Washington, D.C. 150 years ago, 1873
Indians 101: The 1856 Battle of Seattle
Indians 301: The Puget Sound War
Indians 201: The 1827 Winnebago Uprising
Indians 101: The 1855 Walla Walla treaty council
