Toward the end of the eighteenth century, the United States came into existence. Following the European legal precedent of the Discovery Doctrine, the new country assumed that, as a Christian nation, it had the right--if not the obligation--to rule over non-Christian nations. Indian nations were not seen as a part of the United States but as an impediment to its progress. Under the Constitution, Indian tribes were seen as sovereign nations and the United States negotiated treaties with them which would: (1) cede title to Indian land so that it could be settled and developed by non-Indians; (2) restrict Indians to reservations; and (3) stop intertribal warfare which was seen as a barrier to non-Indian settlement.
With regard to the Indian policy under President George Washington, history writer Ted Morgan, in his book Wilderness at Dawn: The Settling of the North American Continent, reports:
“No one suggested that Indians should become American citizens; the two societies were considered incompatible. One was pagan, preliterate, and nomadic. The other was Christian, literate, and agricultural.”
Historian Frances Jennings, in his book The Creation of America: Through Revolution to Empire, writes of one of the architects of American government, Thomas Jefferson:
“However sphinxlike he might be in other respects, his behavior toward Indians was always clear and consistent. He wanted to get rid of them.”
Among the Indian nations in the Great Lakes area that the United States treated with were the Potawatomis. One of their leaders was the war chief and shaman Main Poc.
The Potawatomis
The Potawatomis were one of several Algonquian-speaking Indian nations which inhabited the western Great Lakes area at the time of the European invasion. Regarding Potawatomi migrations, Merwyn Garbarino and Robert Sasso, in their book Native American Heritage, write:
“This group is believed to be represented historically by the Dumaw Creek culture, a Woodland culture in western Michigan. This group apparently migrated from the northeast Atlantic coast, according to their oral tradition. Some Potawatomi eventually moved around to the western side of Lake Michigan, occupying settlement from Washington Island at the tip of the Door Peninsula in northeastern Wisconsin to the spot where Chicago later grew up.”
In his entry on the Potawatomis in The Encyclopedia of North American Indians, David Edmunds reports:
“Initial French records suggest that prior to 1640 the Potawatomis occupied the southwestern quadrant of the lower peninsula of Michigan, but during the Beaver Wars of the 1640s, they fled attacks by the Neutrals, first seeking sanctuary in the Sault Ste Marie region and then crossing to Green Bay, where they joined with other tribes also seeking refuge from the Neutrals and Iroquois. By 1675 the Potawaomis had emerged as one of the dominant tribes in the Green Bay region.”
According to oral tradition, the tribes of the Three Fires Confederacy—Ojibwa, Ottawa, Potawatomi—were once a single people who lived far to the east. At the time of separation, the tribes were living in the area around the Straits of Mackinac. The Potawatomis, considered the Youngest Brother of the three tribes, moved south into present-day Michigan. It is estimated that the three tribes may have separated as late as 1550.
The name Potawatomi (pronounced pot-uh-WOT-uh-mee) is from Ojibwa po’te’wa’tami, and their self-designation is potewatmi. In his chapter on the Potawatomi in the Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 15: Northeast, James Clifton writes:
“This word is an unanalyzable name with no known literal meaning, and the commonly cited translation “people of the place of the fire” is merely folk etymology.”
In the historical records Potawatomi may be spelled as Potawatami, Pottawatami, Poutwouatami, and Pottwatomie.
Main Poc
Main Poc (also called Lame Hand, Left Hand, and Withered Hand) was born in the 1760s. He was born without thumb or fingers on his left hand. This was seen as a special spiritual sign. In their book The Encyclopedia of Native American Religions, Arlene Hirschfelder and Paulette Molin write:
“He claimed that he had been given spiritual powers to compensate for his crippled hand, including the ability to protect himself and others from enemy bullets.”
In his book The Shawnee Prophet, David Edmunds writes:
“An eloquent speaker, Main Poc also held great influence over the Sacs, Winnebagos, and part of the Chippewas.”
Main Poc participated in the Wabeno, a religious society. Arlene Hirschfelder and Paulette Molin write:
“Manifesting their spiritual power, in part, through the manipulation of fire, the Wabeno shamans interpreted dreams, guided initiates through rituals and healed the sick.”
Arlene Hirschfelder and Paulette Molin also report:
“Early on, it was a society that shared some similarities with the Midewiwin, requiring fees and initiation and having both male and female members. Possessing particular spiritual powers, the Wabeno were known as fire walkers because of their ability to walk on or to handle hot coals.”
Wabeno could transform themselves into animals, such as the bear. Arlene Hirschfelder and Paulette Molin write:
“Using herbal preparations for protection, they were known to plunge their hands into boiling water or maple syrup without burning themselves.”
Main Poc became a war chief leading Potawatomi warriors in raids against the Osages, Weas, and Piankashaws. Warriors from Potawatomi allies, such as the Kickapoos, Sacs, and Foxes, would often join in these raids.
In 1795, “Mad Anthony” Wayne, not known for his diplomatic skills, dictated the Treaty of Greenville, Ohio, to the Miamis, Shawnees, Potawatomis, Kickapoos, Delawares (Lenni Lenapes), Ottawas, Wyandots, and Ojibwas. There were no negotiations: the Indians were to give up most of Ohio and part of Indiana. In exchange for the land, the Indians were to receive $25,000 in trade goods and an annuity of $9,500 In his book The Potawatomis: Keepers of the Fire, David Edmunds reports:
“Although the western Potawatomis had signed the Treaty of Greenville, some chiefs, such as Main Poc from the Kankakee and Turkey Foot from the Tippecanoe, remained openly hostile to the United States.”
In 1805, Main Poc led Potawatomi warriors in an attack on an Osage village when the men were away hunting. The Potawatomi warriors killed 34 women and children and took 60 prisoners. The Potawatomis gave many of the prisoners to the Sacs and Foxes. In his book The Osage: An Ethnohistorical Study of Hegemony on the Prairie-Plains, historian Willard Rollings reports:
“Potawatomi had attacked the Osage before to steal captives and livestock, but this brutal attack was different; it was not followed by a retaliatory attack by the Osage.”
The Osage were dependent upon the United States for guns, ammunition, and other trade goods, and the United States insisted that the Osages not retaliate. Instead, the United States negotiated for the release of the prisoners. Over the next two years, most of the captives were returned. The captives held in Main Poc’s village were the last to be returned. David Edmunds writes:
“Inspired by Main Poc’s success, the Potawatomis launched other raids into Missouri.”
From 1805 to 1809, a pan-Indian nativistic spiritual movement led by the Shawnee prophet Tenskwatawa spread across the Indian nations of the Midwest. Tenskwatawa encouraged his followers to return to their aboriginal communal life and to view the Americans as enemies. In 1807 Main Poc travelled to Ohio to meet with Tenskwatawa and spent two months with him. David Edmunds reports:
“Main Poc’s prowess as a war chief was well known to the Shawnee leader, who considered the Potawatomi to be the most influential Indian in Illinois.”
Arlene Hirschfelder and Paulette Molin write:
“He evidently accepted some of the prophet’s teachings but rejected others. He agreed with Tenskwatawa’s denunciation of the Americans but refused to give up intoxicating beverages or intertribal warfare.”
David Edmunds writes:
“Although the Potawatomi was willing to cooperate with the Prophet’s movement, he refused to subjugate himself to the Shawnees.”
The following year, however, Tenskwatawa and his brother Tecumseh built a center for traditional people on the Tippecanoe River on Potawatomi lands in Indiana. Main Poc had invited Tenskwatawa and his followers to settle at this location.
By 1808, American officials realized that they had little influence over the Potawatomis and that Main Poc was preparing to renew his war against the Osages. Indian agent William Wells, who had met with Main Poc in 1807, decided to bring Main Poc to Washington, D.C. to overwhelm him with a display of American civilization and power.The Potawatomis met with President Jefferson. David Edmunds reports:
“The president urged the chief to take up agriculture so that his people would prosper and admonished him to give up the war against the Osages. Jefferson pointed out that the Osages never crossed the Mississippi to attack the Potawatomis, so why should Main Poc’s warriors raid Osage villages?”
Arlene Hirschfelder and Paulette Molin report:
“Main Poc met with President Thomas Jefferson, informing him that he planned to continue his intertribal warfare.”
In January, 1809, the Potawatomis began their journey home. David Edmund writes:
“As the party passed through Baltimore, the chief acquired enough whiskey to stay intoxicated for most of the return trip to the west.”
In 1810, Main Poc spent the summer camping in western Illinois. Travelling between Lake Peoria and the Mississippi, Main Poc raided the American traders in the area.
In September Main Poc led a large war party of Potawatomis, Sacs, and Kickapoos across the Mississippi River where they battled an Osage hunting party. David Edmunds reports:
“In the resulting skirmish several Osages were killed, but Main Poc was injured, and his warriors retreated, believing that the Osages had found some new and powerful medicine which caused the wound to their leader. The Potawatomi chief could neither ride his horse, nor walk, so he was placed in a canoe and carried down the Missouri to Mississippi. His warriors then cross over to Illinois and Main Poc spent the winter on the Mississippi, above Portage des Sioux, recovering from his wounds.”
Arlene Hirschfelder and Paulette Molin write:
“Claiming that he had taken a bullet aimed at his wife, Main Poc assured his followers that he had not lost his protective spiritual power.”
In 1811, Main Poc had recovered from his wound and established a temporary village at Crow Prairie, north of Lake Peoria. The village quickly became a rendezvous point for warriors raiding in southern Illinois. Potawatomi warriors from the village killed some American farmers. In his book The Shawnee Prophet, David Edmunds reports:
“The wide-ranging attacks created panic in southern Illinois, and settlers deserted their farms and fled toward Kentucky.”
The Americans believed that the warriors were followers of the Shawnee leader Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa. They demanded that the culprits be turned over to them, but Tecumseh refused.
While Main Poc was not particularly friendly with the United States, he maintained friendly relations with the British. In 1811, he visited with the Sacs in their villages along the Rock River and with the Kickapoos near the mouth of the Kankakee, securing agreements of support in the event of confrontations with the Americans. He then traveled to Amherstburg, Ontario where the British warmly welcomed him. In his book The Potawatomis: Keepers of the Fire, David Edmunds reports:
“Main Poc spent the fall and winter in Canada, attempting to lure nearby bands of Ottawas and Chippewas away from the United States.”
In 1812, war formally broke out between the United States and England. The Americans attempted to recruit the Potawatomis as allies but failed. The Potawatomis allied themselves with the British to fight the Americans.
In 1813, the war turned against the British and they began to withdraw to Canada. As the Americans prepare to follow the British into Canada, Brigadier General Duncan McArthur brought 700 troops to Detroit and found that most of the Indians were ready to make peace. A formal armistice was signed with the Potawatomis, Ottawa’s, Chippewas, Miamis, and Wyandots. According to the terms of the armistice the Indians were to “retire to their usual hunting grounds and there remain unmolested provided they behave themselves peacefully” Main Poc, Topinbee, and Five Medals signed for the Potawatomi. David Edmunds writes:
“Main Poc and his followers had no intention of honoring the agreement. They still remained adamantly opposed to the Americans, but they were desperately short of food and other necessities.”
Main Poc’s people drew rations from the Americans in silence. Main Poc’s warriors continued to plunder American farms.
In 1814, Potawatomi war chief Main Poc established a temporary camp on the Yellow River in Indiana. Here Main Poc conferred with several pro-British chiefs. David Edmunds writes:
“Angered by the Potawatomis’ continued violation of the truce, the government decided to move against the hostiles.”
The American plan was to raise a force of volunteers, then march through northern Indiana, and destroy Potawatomi villages.
The Potawatomis learned of the plan and assembled a force of more than 800 warriors. The Americans, on the other hand, were able to recruit fewer than 600. The attack doesn’t happen as the Americans turned north and raided British food depots in Canada.
Main Poc died in 1816 near Manistee on Lake Michigan. David Edmund writes:
“…the incorrigible old warrior was the last of the traditional war chiefs. His way of life had ended. The new leaders among the tribe would be men skilled in diplomacy, not warfare.”
More American Indian biographies
Indians 301: Nakaidoklini, Apache spiritual leader
Indians 201: Eschiti, Comanche medicineman
Indians 101: Crowfoot, Canadian Siksika leader
Indians 101: Manuelito, Navajo war leader
Indians 101: Minnie Kellogg, Oneida activist
Indians 201: Sarah (Sally) Ainse, Oneida trader
Indians 201: Mourning Dove, first American Indian woman novelist
Indians 101: Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, Writer, Musician, and Activist
