For those of you expecting Unitary Moonbat this evening, he was gracious enough to allow me to cave-sit.
The presidency of James K. Polk and the circumstances regarding the Mexican-American War are eerily similar to those regarding George Bush and the current conflict in Iraq. Of course, the two are strikingly different regarding their abilities to meet their objectives. Polk met every single one of his in four years, while President Bush has accomplished maybe a handful in six years.
I am not a historian, nor do I play one on tv, but I did have to write a paper about Polk for my American History I class last semester regarding controversy (American expansion in the 1840's) surrounding a lesser-known historical figure (Polk) and presence of bias in historical descriptions of said controversy. Weird historical footnote: I researched and wrote this paper in Polk County, MN
Come join me in the Cave of the Moonbat, and try not to break anything while he's gone.
But first, a word from our regular moonbat:
Hi! Unitary Moonbat here, buried up to my wings in annotated bibliographies and other papers to grade. Thankfully, historioranter guyermo has graciously offered to host tonight's discussion in the Cave of the Moonbat, so pay attention and be nice - I don't want to hear about any "discipline problems" when I get back! - u.m.
Now back to programming
Manifest Destiny
The most important concept to understand before we get into the details is that of "Manifest Destiny," or the belief that it was our divine right to conquer everything between the Atlantic and the Pacific. Thomas Jefferson took care of half of it with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, bringing the western border of the United States past the Mississippi to the slopes of the Rockies.
From Frank Bond, "Louisiana" and the Louisiana Purchase.
Government Printing Office, 1912 Map No. 4.
Unlike the depiction in this map, the northern extent of the purchase actually went above the 49th parallel and into modern day Canada. This was resolved in 1818 when the British gave The United States the Red River Valley (the one that now separates Minnesota and North Dakota) up to the 49th in return for what little the United States owned above.
As might be expected with a country that's only been around for 14 years, acquiring two thirds of the land between two oceans in such a short time lead to the belief that it was the Americans' divine right to the final third, no mater who was living there. This belief grew over the 40 years following the purchase and culminated in the election of 1844.
Election of 1844
Historiorant: Some of this has been written about previously by our regular historiorant. Please give it a read if you haven't already.
The Democratic platform at the time was embracing the acquisition of the Oregon Territory from Great Britain, the annexation of the Republic of Texas, no further improvements to the federal government, and the re-establishment of a U.S. Bank. The obvious choice for delegates was former President Martin Van Buren, who opposed the spread of slavery but also was against the annexation of Texas (and the diplomatic tensions with Mexico that would result). According to the rules of the convention, a candidate needed 2/3 of the delegates to secure the nomination. Van Buren's opposition to the annexation of Texas guaranteed he would not reach that threshold on the first ballot. Eight ballots later the former Governor of Tennessee, James K. Polk, was nominated.
This nomination resulted from the wheelings and dealings of Andrew Jackson. According to Polk's White House biography, it was due to Jackson's realization that Democrats (and Americans in general) favored expansion.
Polk's opponent in the general election was Whig candidate Henry Clay, who was nominated unanimously by his party after President John Tyler was expelled from the party due to his vetoes of a national bank. Unlike Polk, who was very outspoken in favor of westward expansion, Clay was more hesitant to take a position one way or the other.
Election Map via Wikipedia (copyright info and larger image here)
As is apparent, the over-all mood of the country, especially in the slave states, was in favor of expansion. While his popular vote victory was only about thirty-eight thousand, it was a significant electoral victory.
Oregon Territory
At the time of the election in 1844, the Oregon Territory was jointly occupied by both the British and Americans. The original British claim to the territory was south to the extremely fertile Columbia River. The Democrats claimed the United States had rights as far north as 54 degrees 40 minutes latitude, which led to the popular slogan "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" Just for context, 54-40 is approximately the southernmost point of continental Alaska, or just north of Prince George, British Columbia. In short, Democrats were claiming rights to half of modern-day British Columbia! An excellent map can be found here.
Initially, Polk offered the British a continuation of the treaty setting the border of the United States and Canada along the 49th parallel. The British, reluctant to give up their claim to the Columbia River, declined the offer. In a wonderful move of brinksmanship, Polk adopted the Democratic position of 54°40', which threatened war with Great Britain. Since neither side had major numbers of troops deployed to the area, a war was unlikely. However, justifying the measure as a precaution against war made accepting the 49° boundary easier for the British and their people. Also, the British were able to negotiate to retain the whole of Vancouver Island.
Historiorant: The comment about brinksmanship is entirely my position, and others (especially Brits alive in 1846) may see things differently
1st Intermission: Due to the length of this diary, you may wish to get up and grab a snack, check the score, use the restrooms, etc., before continuing.
Looking South
The build-up to the Mexican-American war has many similarities to that of the U.S. invasion of Iraq. Both Polk and Bush were determined to have a war. Both Polk and Bush did their best to make sure they were justified in having their war with Polk performing better in this regard than Bush. Both the Mexican-American and American-Iraqi conflicts involved a decade of disputes, as this paragraph from PBS demonstrates regarding Mexico and Texas:
The ten-year existence of this sovereign state further complicated the disputed border. Mexico never recognized the independence of Texas and therefore claimed the 1819 borders as intact. The United States, as well as Great Britain and France, however, did approve of Texas's claim to nationhood. The question remained as to the precise western and southern borders of the nation. In 1836, Texas pressed a frontier claim south to the Rio Grande and west to its source in spite of the lack of historical precedent. This put into dispute the Trans-Nueces region, or the Seno Mexicano, long a part of the Mexican state of Tamaulipas, as well as most of Nuevo Mexico. In subsequent years, Texas legislatures claimed even more Mexican territory, eventually laying claim to the Californias. Starting in 1841, Texas attempted to press its claim to eastern New Mexico militarily, but without success.
Historiorant: At my point in this border's history, the sources examined have chosen to emphasize different aspects of what happened and I am now incorporating parts those portions of my aforementioned paper.
First, where the sources agree. In 1845 President Polk sent John Slidell to Mexico to negotiate the purchase of the regions of New Mexico and California (the modern American South-west) for approximately $30 million. Not surprisingly, Santa Anna declined to receive Mr. Slidell. If he appeared to be willing to even consider selling half his country, he would not have survived as President of Mexico.
Encyclopedia Americana had this to say:
At the same time, he [Polk] threatened the Mexicans with war unless they paid some large and ill-founded claims by U.S. citizens against the Mexican government, suggesting that Mexico could satisfy the claims by ceding New Mexico and California to the United States. When the Mexicans refused to submit to this browbeating, Polk ordered his army to the Rio Grande
The White House biography is more, if not wholly accurate:
Acquisition of California proved far more difficult. Polk sent an envoy to offer Mexico up to $20,000,000 plus settlement of damage claims owed to Americans, in return for California and New Mexico country. Since no Mexican leader could cede half his country and still stay in power, Polk's envoy was not received. To bring pressure, Polk sent Zachary Taylor to the disputed area on the Rio Grande
Note that the White House version says this area was disputed, while the encyclopedia doesn't.
Historiorant:In reading the Encyclopedia Americana version, it seems to me that it implies the Mexican government owed the U.S. New Mexico and California simply because of the intolerable cruelty with which it treated the Texans. Others may see it differently, so beware my bias
In fact, the area in dispute was approximately the same size as the modern state of Texas, as you can see in the map below. The United States claimed the Rio Grande was the border, while the Mexican government claimed the territory to the Nueces (modern Corpus Christy).
Original image and copyright info here
Modern historical context: Imagine India just moved troops 100 miles into Kashmir while an envoy was in Pakistan negotiating to purchase Kashmir at a reduced price because of perceived attacks against Indian citizens. Also, to compensate for the American's technological advantages, imagine Pakistan didn't have nukes.
As a result of these troop movements Slidell gets sent home, as Polk knew he would. According to Sam W. Haynes (and mentioned here), this was the event Polk was originally going to use to declare war on Mexico. However, days before he was to do so, Mexican soldiers "crossed the border (the Rio Grande)" and killed several American soldiers in what became known as the Thornton Affair
Historiorant: Corroboration to Haynes' assertion may be implied here, but as I am unable to examine the original documents (Polk's diary) this cannot be completely verified. However, the historiant notes that there are similarities between this version of events and Bush's 2002 U.N. resolution regarding Iraq. While Polk got his 'unprovoked attack,' Saddam Hussein never kicked out weapons inspectors, nor did the inspectors find any WMD.
War with Mexico
With the attack on U.S. troops, Polk has (in his mind) his unquestionable justification for a request for a Declaration of War against Mexico. On May 13, 1846 (19 days later) Congress declared war against Mexico.
Mexico was significantly weakened by its war, a decade previous, with Texas. The United States had a greater number of troops as well as better technology. While the Mexicans were using the muskets of the Napoleonic Wars, the United States had begun using rifled barrels and other advances in technology.
In June, American civilians in Sonoma revolted against the government of Mexico. This resulted in the very short-lived Republic of California. A month later, U.S. forces routed the Mexican Garrison at Monterrey, leading Californians to abandon the idea of their republic and concentrate on joining the union.
By August 1846 we conquered west from the Rio Grande to Santa Fe, New Mexico. By September, we captured Monterrey to the South. Realizing that it was perhaps not the best strategy to fight in the desert for prolonged periods of time, General Winfield Scott searched for an alternate route to the Mexican capital. He found it with the largest amphibious invasion history had seen up to that point. He landed at Veracruz in March and fought steadily inland against Santa Anna until they finally approached Mexico City.
During the battle for Mexico City,the assault of Chapultepec Palace by U.S. Marines is the event that inspired the phrase "The halls of Montezuma" for the Marine Corps Hymn. The when the war ended on February 2, 1848 with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the final toll of the war for the Americans was 13,000 dead (1,700 from combat). For the Mexicans, the cost was approximately 25,000 dead for the Mexicans, the loss of 500,000 square miles of territory, and approximately 8,000 citizens who remained and became U.S. citizens rather than move, in some cases, hundreds of miles to start over.
2nd Intermission: You're nearly done, so if you think you can make it, go right ahead. Otherwise, take a breather, check the score again, and come back. If I included everything that I wanted or was suggested, you can only imagine how much longer it would be.
Political Aftermath
Shortly before the end of the war, a Congress not afraid to shirk its oversight duties issued a bill praising General Zachary Taylor that offered the following amendment (emphasis mine):
In pursuance of previous notice, Mr. John W. Houston asked, obtained leave, and introduced a joint resolution (No. 4) of thanks to Major General Taylor: which was read a first and second time; when Mr. Schenck moved that the said resolution be referred to the Committee on Military Affairs.
Mr. Henley moved to amend the said motion of Mr. Schenck, by adding thereto the following: "with instructions to insert in the said resolution the following: 'engaged as they were, in defending the rights and honor of the country.'"
Mr. Ashmun moved to amend the said proposed instructions, by adding at the end of the same the following: "in a war unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun by the President of the United States."
And the question was put, Will the House agree to the amendment offered by Mr. Ashmun,
- And decided in the affirmative,
- Yeas ... 82
- Nays ... 81
Freshman Congressman Abraham Lincoln, who had been against the war all along, voted in the affirmative. However, the in Illinois the war was extremely popular and he did not seek an additional term as Congressman.
In 1848, General Taylor won the Presidency while running on the Whig platform, defeating Democrat Lewis Cass in the process. There were a few reasons Polk declined to run a second term. One reason was that some of the American sentiment had favored the annexation of the whole of Mexico. Another was the anti-war movement mentioned later on. Knowing he would never satisfy either segment, Polk declined to seek a second term. It was just as well, since he died in June 1949, two months into what would have been his second term. Here is the graphic for that campaign, just for comparison. And yes, Martin Van Buren continued to flog his dead horse by running again with the only party that would have him.
Original image and copyright info here
Ulysses S. Grant had the following to say regarding the Mexican-American War(again, emphasis mine):
In taking military possession of Texas after annexation, the army of occupation, under General Taylor, was directed to occupy the disputed territory. The army did not stop at the Nueces and order to negotiate for a settlement of the boundary question, but went beyond, apparently in order to force Mexico to initiate war. It is to the credit of the American nation, however, that after conquering Mexico, and while practically holding the country in our possession, so that we could have retained the whole of it, or made any terms we chose, we paid a round sum for the additional territory taken; more than it was worth, or was likely to be, to Mexico. To us it was an empire and of incalculable value; but it might have been obtained by other means. The Southern rebellion was largely the outgrowth of the Mexican war. Nations, like individuals, are punished for their transgressions. We got our punishment in the most sanguinary and expensive war of modern times.
Grant's Memoirs, Chapter 3 pp 19-20
Indeed, Grant's statements seem justified if you look at the the names of some of those who fought in the Mexican-American war as junior officers or enlisted men and later became involved in the Civil War: Ulysses S. Grant, George B. McClellan, Ambrose Burnside, Stonewall Jackson, James Longstreet, George Meade, and Robert E. Lee, and future Confederate President Jefferson Davis.
Historiorant's Thoughts and Miscellaneous Notes
In researching my paper (I can't mention all of the sources I used for that paper because some of them are print sources that are inaccessible from my current location) it was strikingly clear that Polk wanted California and New Mexico by any means necessary. If he couldn't blackmail Mexico, he would lure them into a war. As I noted above, President Bush had pretty much the same philosophy regarding Iraq, only he went ahead after his provocation failed thanks to the Iraq War resolution passed by Congress in October, 2002. If Mexican forces had not attacked our troops, President Polk would have been in a nearly identical situation and, presumably, would not have gotten his Congressional declaration of war.
Presidents James Polk and Zachary Taylor are among the most hated Americans in Mexico for their parts in the conquest. Celebrated in Mexico are the Niños Héroes, six teenagers who died on September 13, 1847 defending Chapultepec Palace as military cadets. President Truman visited their memorial in 1947, the first President to do so, with Bill Clinton repeating 50 years later. Truman's visit makes him the most popular American President in Mexico.
Historiant:Some sources say that they didn't die defending the palace but rather committed suicide, while one makes reference to a belief that they may have been a myth.
From what I hear (I cannot speak from personal experience) the resentment towards Americans can still be quite strong, especially considering the discovery of gold San Francisco in January 1848 (only a couple weeks prior to the conclusion of the war) and the great gold rush only one year later. A common, but incorrect belief is that the often used slur "gringo" began being applied to Americans during the Mexican-American War.
The justifications for and prosecution of the Mexican-American war greatly bothered President Grant:
For myself, I was bitterly opposed to the measure [the annexation of Texas], and to this day regard the war, which resulted, as one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation.
Grant's Memoirs, p 18 link
Some might argue that this distinction has been replaced with Operation Iraqi Freedom, now one of the most inaptly named military operations in history.
Another interesting parallel between the this war and the current conflict:
Despite early popularity at home, the war was marked by the growth of a loud anti-war movement which included such noted Americans as Ralph Waldo Emerson, former president John Quincy Adams and Henry David Thoreau. The center of anti-war sentiment gravitated around New England, and was directly connected to the movement to abolish slavery.
Finally, if your eyes allow, I highly recommend reading Lincoln's speech on the House floor regarding holding President Polk accountable for our questionable entrance into the Mexican-American war.
I should also add that, prior to researching this presidency, I had very little idea of the circumstances regarding this war. It was through the natural discovery of the events, and seeing the differences in the reference material that I realized how controversial this war was to its contemporaries and how controversial it remains today.