In Europe, the Viking Age is generally described as beginning in 793 CE when Norse raiders attacked and looted the Christian monastery at Lindisfarne in Britain. The Norse raiders, commonly known as Vikings, have generally been described by Christian writers as anti-Christian pagans. While they were pagans in that they had their own religious pantheon, the description of the Vikings as anti-Christian probably stems from Christian paranoia and the Christian self-image of being a persecuted religion.
From the perspective of an eighth century raider, Christian monasteries were seen as profitable targets not because they were Christian but rather because they were undefended and contained valuables. In his book A Brief History of the Vikings: The Last Pagans or the First Modern Europeans?, Jonathan Clements writes:
“What distinguished them was their willingness to regard the clergy as legitimate targets. Whereas mundane towns and villages boasted defensive walls, forts and local militia, monasteries in particular stood exposed and undefended, their occupants not expecting attack, and consequently unable to put up much resistance.”
With regard to the anti-Christian image of the Norse raiders, University of York archaeologist Julian Richards, in his book The Vikings: A Very Short Introduction, writes:
“The Viking stereotype rests upon aggressive paganism. Viking raiders who attacked undefended monasteries have been accused of doing so not just because these sites represented easy sources of wealth, but explicitly because they were Christian.”
The end of the European Viking Age is generally dated at 1066.
Norse Religion
The traditional Norse religion is considered an ethnic religion as it did not recruit nor proselytize. People were born into the religion. In her essay in Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga, Anne-Sofie Gräslund writes:
“The Old Norse religion dating to before A.D. 1000 may be classified as an ethnic religion, meaning that it belongs to a specific people or group of people, in contrast to, for example, a religion like Christianity, which has become a universal or multiethnic religion.”
In the Old Norse language there was no specific word for religion. Anne-Sofie Gräslund writes:
“Unlike today when religion is often separated from secular life, it was then a natural part of all occupations. Viking mythology, which is best known from Old Norse literature, is comprehensive and shows that the Scandinavians had an integrated view of world processes, including its creation and its destruction.”
As with many other ethnic religions, religion was a part of daily life rather than being a separate area. Julian Richards writes:
“Religion was just another aspect of life and the act of worship as required by the Norse pantheon was not adoration or even uncritical approval, and therefore it was utterly unlike the Christian relationship with the divine. According to Norse mythology, everything ended at Ragnarok, when all humans and gods were killed and burnt. According to this philosophy the outcome of our actions is predetermined, and we cannot change our fate; what is important is our conduct as we go to meet it.”
In his book The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings, John Haywood writes:
“Religion was a matter of the correct performance and observance of sacrifices, rituals and festivals, rather than of personal spirituality. There was no full-time priesthood; it was usually the king or local chieftains who had the responsibility for ensuring that festivals were observed.”
As with other ethnic religions, ceremonies were often conducted outdoors, at times in sacred places, rather than in specially constructed buildings or temples.
Much of what has been written about the old Norse religion has been based upon reports by the early Christian chroniclers who had a somewhat unfavorable view of this religion.
Some of the Gods
Like many other ethnic religions throughout the world, the Norse religion was polytheistic and included both gods (aesir) and goddesses (vanir). In addition, there were mythic giants who struggled with the gods and dwarves who lived underground and helped the gods. John Haywood writes:
“As in other polytheistic religions, the Viking gods ruled over different aspects of human life.”
A few of the better-known Norse or Viking gods are described below.
Odin, who is also known as Woden or Wotan in some regions, was the leader of the gods. He was the god of the aristocrats and was worshiped by dedicated warriors and poets. John Haywood writes:
“…Odin was the god of wisdom, power, war and poetry; he was a sorcerer and could deprive men of their wits and exercise his power of life and death in wildly unpredictable ways.”
Odin inspired poets and gave warriors courage in battle. Oden has at least 177 names and kennings. There were times when he appeared as an old man, ravaged by time, who would be invited into the homes of the mortals. Some modern writers feel that this image of Odin may have been the precursor to the Christian Santa Claus.
Thor was the god of thunder and lightening, wind, rain, good weather, physical strength, and crops. He carries a large hammer. Preben Meulengracht Sørensen, in an essay in The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings, reports:
“He was the master of thunder and lightning, storm and rain, fair weather and crops, and the pagans sacrificed to him when threatened by hunger or disease.”
John Haywood writes:
“Unlike Odin, Thor was a straightforward, reliable god, but he was none too bright and the myths concerning his deeds often highlight in a humorous way the limitations of his brute strength.”
In her essay in Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga, Anne-Sofie Gräslund writes:
“Thor was an extremely important and popular god, perhaps because weather was central to the productivity of Scandinavian agricultural society.”
Freyr and Freyja were the twin gods of fertility. Freyja was skilled in sorcery and was the embodiment of female sexual power. Her brother Freyr was the god of male potency, good weather, good harvests, and fertile beasts. John Haywood writes:
“Freyr was the god of wealth, health and fertility; he was portrayed with an erect phallus. Offerings were made to Freyr at weddings.”
Preben Meulengracht Sørensen reports:
“Freyr, who was endowed with an enormous phallus, gave men peace and joy, and offerings were made to him on weddings…”
Loki, the god of fire, is generally described as being cunning, witty, and a mischief-maker. Jonathan Clements writes:
“Loki was a great shape-shifter, although his transformations often brought him more strife.”
Loki’s daughter is Hel who is queen of the underworld.
Bragi is a god of poetry. He was renowned for wisdom, for fluency of speech, and for skill in using words.
Njord (Njörðr) is a god of sea. He is the father of Freyr and Freyja. He was associated with wealth and sea-faring.
Ull is the god of archery, the shield, and snowshoes. Warriors called upon Ull for help in combat. While Ull appears to have been an important god in the Norse pantheon, very little about him has been recorded in the chronicles.
Religion 101
Religion 101 is a series exploring various religious topics in which the concept of religion is not restricted to the Abrahamic religions. More from this series:
Religion 101: Confucianism
Religion 101: Naturalism
Religion 101: The Evolution of Morality
Religion 101: Religion and Ancient Civilizations
Religion 101: Atheism
Religion 101: Zoroaster's Vision
Religion 101: Sex and Religion
Religion 101: Human Sacrifice