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Today’s Musings: Robert Barclay and the Act of Toleration
Musings:
Robert Barclay (1648-1690), came to public attention in 1675 at the age of 27. Preparing for a public debate at Aberdeen, the young Scottish Friend and theologian published Theses Theologicae, a set of 15 “propositions” explaining the Quaker faith. In 1676, the pamphlet was expanded into a major theological defense of Quakerism called An Apology for the True Christian Divinity. It was published in Amsterdam to avoid censor by British authorities.
In this very first of his writings, Barclay articulated the principle of “liberty of conscience” – that no government or civil authority had the right to force someone to act against their conscience. He went on to demand civil justice be “even handed” and that all citizens, no matter their religious persuasion, be treated equally under the law. Barclay was in a unique position to refute attacks on Quaker beliefs as well as assuage fears about a sect seen as radical by the mainstream Protestants. He had joined the Religious Society of Friends at the age of eighteen, after having distinguished himself in college, where he studied under some of the leading Calvinist theologians in his native Scotland and then with Catholic theologians in Paris.
Befriended by William Penn, the young scholar spent several years writing, publishing, and traveling in Europe. He was imprisoned several times in Scotland for the crime of publicly worshipping as a Quaker. Barclay found himself providing legal defense to his fellow Quakers, further bringing him to the attention of the authorities. However, many of Barclay’s works challenged mainstream Calvinism, a stance that appealed to both Anglican and Catholic Scottish lairds. Because of his family connections and his friendship with distant relation the Earl of Perth, Robert Barclay found himself in the sphere of James Stuart, the Duke of York, and heir to the British throne.
Under Robert Barclay’s influence, James developed a personal sympathy for and generosity toward the Friends. He even intervened in legal matters regarding the Friends, much to the consternation of other non-conformists, especially the embattled Scottish Presbyterians who were facing bloody repression. Barclay, along with Penn, never ceased arguing for the end of violent repression and for liberty of conscious for all dissenters.
East Jersey: Western Utopia? Barclay’s friendship with James Stuart helped the Friends obtain the patent to settle the province of East Jersey. The original land grants to East Jersey had been purchased by William Penn, the Earl of Perth, and other investors with the idea of extending Quaker values and forms into districts adjacent to Pennsylvania.
From 1682 to 1688, Barclay served as governor of the fledgling colony, primarily acting through a resident deputy. In this capacity one of Barclay’s chief concerns was to make the new colony a refuge not only for fellow Friends but also for the persecuted Calvinists, whose theology he abhorred but whose right to freedom of worship he staunchly defended. The charter for the colony specifically allowed for freedom of religion. “No person qualified as a freeman shall be any ways molested or called in question for Any difference in opinion and practice in matters of religious concernment; but all such Persons may from time to time, freely and fully enjoy their judgements and conscience in matters of religion.”
In the young Robert Barclay, William Penn had found not only a brilliant theologian but a practical adviser who might help navigate their lofty aims into reality. In particular, they shared a vision for a “Western Utopia” in the colonies. Religious tolerance was the pillar of the society built to be built on “perfect freedom of conscience,” and incorporated freedom of trade (rejection of monopolies) and ethical commerce, and democratic representative government including universal suffrage (which, in this era meant male free-holders and while not articulated, probably only Europeans). Most of these ideals were incorporated in the charter for East Jersey.
The Act of Toleration. Robert Barclay spent a mere year in East Jersey, choosing to return to home in Scotland and duties in London at the behest of the beleaguered Stuart monarch. In these final days leading up to his forced abdication, James II apparently leaned on his distant cousin for support. In private conversations, they revisited Barclay’s arguments in favor of a policy of religious toleration for Great Britain – a policy which James believed himself to have embraced in principle if not always in practice. It was true that James had provided some relief for the Scottish Friends. Barclay had hoped for a wider-reaching proclamation. And, in large part because of the work of Barclay, just such an act of Parliament was in the works.
The Act of Toleration was conceived under James’ reign, passed during that uncertain time when James had fled but William of Orange had not yet arrived. It would be embraced by King William. In the end, the Toleration Act of 1689 was a deeply flawed solution to the series of bloody religious repressions and reprisals Great Britain had endured for fifty years. But it was a start. The Anglican retained its elevated position as the established church. However, most forms of Protestant worship would be allowed. Dissenters and non-conformists would not compromise their principles. Catholics, Jews, and non-Trinitarians (Unitarians) were excluded.
It was only a start. However, the Toleration Act demonstrated that a citizenry united under a single religious authority would have to be abandoned. In America, this recognition society on the path to the eventual separation of church and state.