As a Christian nation, the United States has had little tolerance for religious diversity, particularly with regard to American Indian religions. The policies of the United States have sought to make Indians into Christians through missionary efforts, the education of children, and the refusal to recognize the existence of aboriginal religions. While traditional Indian religions were tribally-based, that is, religion was a part of the tribal identity, by 1870 there were several pan-Indian religious movements. The largest of these was the Native American Church which spread throughout the West. In the Pacific Northwest, the teachings of Smohalla resulted in what was called the Dreamer Religion and in Nevada, Idaho, and California, the teachings of Wodziwob developed into what was called the Ghost Dance Religion (not to be confused with Wovoka’s later Ghost Dance Religion).
Native American Church
The Native American Church began the practice of the union of souls through the sacrament of peyote. Peyote is a small spineless cactus, Lophophora williamsii. In his book Crying for a Dream, Richard Erdoes writes that the
“peyote religion was a blend of native and Christian beliefs.”
He goes on to point out that
“The missionaries did not take kindly to the new faith, calling peyote a barrier to civilization.”
According to anthropologist Edward H. Spicer, in his book A Short History of the Indians of the United States, the Native American Church
“was opposed vigorously by Whites, especially Protestant missionaries and ministers” and “it was regarded as dangerous by Christian missionaries who held that it made conversion to Christianity difficult or impossible.”
According to anthropologist Omer Stewart, in his chapter on the peyote religion in the Handbook of North American Indians:
“It is a pan-Indian movement that helps the Indians keep a strong group identity while adjusting to the national culture of the United States.”
An Indian Prophet
In Nevada, the Paiute prophet Wodziwob (also known as Tavibo) was visited by Indians from Oregon and Idaho. The Shoshone and Bannock from Idaho’s Fort Hall Reservation and the Shoshone from Wyoming’s Wind River Reservation became active proselytizers for the new religion and sponsored a number of Ghost Dances. Among those attending these dances were Ute, Gosiute, and Navajo. The Ghost Dance also began to move into California. The Modoc brought word of the Ghost Dance to the Shasta.
Dreamer Religion
In the Pacific Northwest, the Wanapum prophet Smohalla was gaining converts among many of the tribes. In his short biographical entry of Smohalla in Notable Native Americans, Michael Turek writes:
“Smohalla’s teachings combined traditional native beliefs with elements of Christianity. He also taught that the coming of the white man had put the world on a course of self-destruction and the only way to avert the end of the world was for the Indians to restore the balance of nature by returning to traditional ways.”
In their book Renegade Tribe: The Palouse Indians and the Invasion of the Inland Pacific Northwest, Clifford Trafzer and Richard Scheuerman report:
“The Wanapum Prophet did not fit the white man’s image of a great leader, for he was considered ‘to be a rather undersized Indian with a form inclining toward obesity.’ Added to this, the ‘peculiar’ holy man was born with a hunchback and a large, oversized head. But what he lacked in appearance, he made up for with his ability as an orator who could hold his listeners ‘spellbound’ with his ‘magic manner.’”
Smohalla’s teachings alarmed many non-Indians in the Northwest and some called for military intervention to put an end to this religious movement. A. B. Meacham, the superintendent of Indian affairs in Oregon stated that one hindrance to Indian assimilation was:
“the existence among the Indians of Oregon of a peculiar religion called Smokeller or Dreamers, the chief doctrine of which is that the red man is again to rule the country.”
Grass Dance
In North Dakota, the Hidatsa bought the rights to perform the Grass Dance from the Santee Sioux from Devils Lake. Some visiting Crow watched the Hidatsa Grass Dance and asked them to visit Crow to sell the dance. The Hidatsa were reluctant to sell the Grass Dance in the sense of relinquishing their rights to it. So, they arranged to transmit the right and information to the dance to the Crow without giving up their own rights.
Christian Missionaries
In South Dakota, the Presbyterians established a mission school for the Yankton Sioux and enrolled 83 children. The Episcopalians also established a mission school among the Yankton Sioux and enrolled 25 students.
In New Mexico, a Presbyterian missionary performed a mixed marriage between a Navajo and a non-Indian without the permission or knowledge of the Indian agent. The agent then requested the missionary’s removal from the reservation. The missionary resigned.
Indians 101
Twice each week Indians 101 explores American Indian topics. More about American Indian religions from this series:
Indians 201: Skolaskin, a Sanpoil Prophet
Indians 201: Frank White, Pawnee Prophet
Indians 201: Neolin, the Delaware Prophet
Indians 101: Nakaidoklini, Apache Spiritual Leader
Indians 101: Eschiti, Comanche Medicineman
Indians 101: A brief overview of Pawnee spirituality
Indians 101: The Plateau Indian vision quest
Indians 101: A very short overview of Northern Plains Indian spirituality