By 1870, the United States was completing its expansion into and domination over American Indian territories. With regard to the American expansion westward into the territories of Indian Nations, Donna Akers, in her chapter in American Indians/American Presidents: A History, writes:
“Embracing the principle that America had a God-given right to expand across the continent, presidents often dispossessed Native people through fraudulent treaties and military conquest, opening Indian homelands to settlers, land speculators, and railroad companies.”
The federal government also often ignored violations of Indian sovereignty by state governments, local citizens, and corporations. American Indians were seen as barriers to the progress of civilization and policies were developed to place them on reservations.
Briefly described below are just a few American Indian events from 1870.
Buffalo
In Wyoming, Sioux leader Red Leaf reported that his people had been able to find few buffalo all through the Sweetwater, Tongue River, and Power River regions. They settled around Fort Laramie for the winter.
An American tannery in Pennsylvania discovered that buffalo hides could be used for making conveyor belts in factories. This new use for buffalo hides opened up a market for summer hides which make poor quality robes.
On the Great Plains, American hunters armed with the Sharps breechloading rifles killed an estimated two million buffalo. Colonel R. I. Dodge notes:
“Every buffalo dead is an Indian gone.”
The buffalo population drops to an estimated 7 million.
Epidemics
Epidemics continued to take their toll on tribes in the southern plains. The Comanche population drops to 8,000 (down from 20,000 in 1849).
An Opinion About Indians
General William Tecumseh Sherman wrote to his son:
“I know Indians well enough to believe that they must be made to feel the power of the United States, before they cease their murders & robbery.”
Fight Over a Woman
In Wyoming, Brulé Sioux warrior Crazy Horse persuaded Black Buffalo Woman to leave her husband No Water and to live with him. No Water tracked the couple down. As No Water pulled a pistol, Crazy Horse attempted to draw his knife but was restrained by Little Big Man. Crazy Horse was shot in the face but survived. The bullet entered below his left nostril and exited out the back of his skull. In addition, severe power burns scared his face. After the encounter, the Sioux elders stripped Crazy Horse of the title of Shirt Wearer.
Informal Peace
In Arizona, two Tolkepaya Yavapai men entered the Army’s Camp Date Creek and explained that their people were not hostile but they would like a peace agreement to protect them from military and civilian raiders. Two weeks later a meeting was held with 200 Yavapai under the leadership of Ohatchecama and the Camp Date Creek commanding officer. An informal peace was negotiated. According to historian Timothy Braatz, in his book Surviving Conquest: A History of the Yavapai Peoples:
“In the agreement the Yavapais promised to stay off the roads between Prescott and Wickenburg, to report the presence of Yavapai raiders to U.S. officers, and to turn in any of their own people responsible for attacks on Americans.”
Explorer
In Arizona, John Wesley Powell, the first American to explore the Colorado River, was taken to the Hopi village of Oraibi by Mormon missionary Jacob Hamblin. He stayed in the village for several weeks. In his book Religion and Hopi Life, John Loftin reports:
“He had great respect for Hopi religious traditions, and after a while he gained the trust of many Hopis.”
Upon his return to Washington, D.C., Powell fought successfully against plans by the Indian Office which would have harmed the Hopi. He considered himself to be a friend of the Hopi.
Chief’s Words
In South Dakota, Arikara chief White Shield said:
“The Sioux will never listen to the Great Father until the soldiers stick bayonets in their ears and make them.”
Discrimination
In Utah, the mining company in Ivanpah was paying Indian laborers $15 per month while it paid non-Indians $60 per month.
Apology
In Utah, Ute war leader Black Hawk toured many of the settlements in central and southern Utah and spoke to Mormon congregations. He asked forgiveness for the Black Hawk War and explained his motives in going to war. Black Hawk emphasized that his people had been destitute and starving. According to Thomas Alexander, in his book Utah, the Right Place: The Official Centennial History:
“Some settlers greeted him with understanding, while others, remembering the deaths of family and friends, rejected his offer of reconciliation.”
Yahi
In California, a group of 15 Yahis appeared at a homesteader’s cabin. They turned over their bows and awaited transportation to the reservation. While waiting they noticed a rope tied to a steel bar suspended over a tree limb. Fearing that they were about to be hanged, they fled back into the hills. This event was later called the Incident of the Five Bows.
Silversmith
In New Mexico, Navajo silversmith Atsidi Chon developed the concha belt. In her chapter in I Am Here: Two Thousand Years of Southwest Indian Arts and Culture, Nancy Fox writes:
“The concha was probably adopted by Navajos from a Mexican prototype. However, stringing them on a belt is a fashion which may have been inspired by the German silver, disc-shaped hair plates worn strung together by Plains Indian men and, sometimes, as belts by Plains women.”
Deaths
In Florida, Seminole chief Arpeika (also known as Sam Jones) died at the age of 105. He led the Seminole resistance to the removal efforts of the United States.
In Wyoming, the Brulé Sioux leader Hump was killed in a battle with the Shoshone.
Indians 101
Twice each week the essays in the Indians 101 series explore different American Indian topics. More nineteenth-century histories from this series:
Indians 101: The Lame Cow War
Indians 101: Fort Fizzle and the Nez Perce
Indians 101: The Cypress Hills Massacre
Indians 101: California's War on Indians, 1850 to 1851
Indians 101: The Camp Grant Massacre
Indians 101: The Cayuse Indian War
Indians 101: The Lowry War
Indians 101: The Early Years of the Coast or Siletz Reservation