During most of the nineteenth century, the policy of the United States was to settle all American Indians on reservations where they would be out of the way of the American settlers who wanted to claim their lands. In accordance with the Constitution of the United States, the federal government negotiated treaties (international agreements) with Indian nations. These treaties often established Indian reservations that were territories which the Indian nations reserved for themselves (please note that the United States did not “give” reservations to the Indian nations). The treaties indicated these reservations were to be for the exclusive use of the Indians.
Reservations were established by treaties, by Presidential Executive Order, and by act of Congress. Similarly, reservation boundaries could be changed, and reservations enlarged or reduced in this fashion. The Indians’ nations were sometimes, but not always, consulted about changes to their reservations. In addition, the Americans tend to view all Indians as one people and, blissfully unaware of cultural differences between tribes, to assign multiple tribes to a single reservation.
One of the purposes of reservations was to “civilize” Indians by acculturating them into American culture and destroying their Indian cultures. In an article in the Western Historical Quarterly, Christina Klein writes:
“Reservations were physical spaces designed to redefine the cultural space of Indians—to move them from savagery, a position wholly outside the social order, to quasi-citizenry, a position within the emerging social hierarchy, albeit on its lowest rungs.”
Historian Sherry Smith, in her book The View from Officers’ Row: Army Perceptions of Western Indians, puts it this way:
“United States Indian policy during the last half of the nineteenth century centered on the reservation system. On reservations, policymakers hoped, Indians would begin the acculturation process that would eventually usher them into the Anglo-American world.”
Corruption in the administration of Indian reservations was widespread. In an effort to stop corruption and to speed-up the assimilation of Indians, President Ulysses S. Grant instituted his Peace Policy in which the administration of reservations was given to Christian (primarily Protestant) churches. With no regard for aboriginal religious practices, it was assumed that all Indians should be forced to become Christian as a part of their assimilation into American culture.
Briefly described below are some reservation events in Arizona and New Mexico of 150 years ago, in 1873.
Note: Modern state names are used even though Arizona and New Mexico did not attain statehood until after 1873. Also, events regarding reservations in some other states in the year 1873 are covered in other diaries.
Navajo Reservation, Arizona and New Mexico
Traditional Navajo territory included northern Arizona, northwest New Mexico, and parts of southern Utah and southern Colorado. While the United States government administered the Navajos as though they were a single tribe. The Navajo were, in fact, numerous autonomous bands sharing a common language and culture.
W.F.M Arny was appointed Indian agent for the Navajo Reservation in Arizona and New Mexico. One of his important qualifications for the job was that he was a member of the Presbyterian Church. Historian Frank McNitt, in his book The Indian Traders, calls him a “…hypocritical rascal, a Bible-pounding moralist who plotted larceny” and who soon “…set in motion a scheme to defraud the Navahos of the best part of their reservation.” Arny’s plan was to have the Navajo give up the northern portion of their reservation in the San Juan drainage of New Mexico and exchange it for land to the west of the reservation. This would mean that potentially good farming land could be opened to non-Indian settlement.
In Arizona and New Mexico, the efforts of the Navajo Cavalry had been so effective that no stock had been stolen by the tribe. At the suggestion of the Indian agent, the Navajo police force was disbanded.
Apache Councils, New Mexico
The Jicarilla Apaches are one of six culturally distinct Apache tribes. Culturally the Jicarillas borrowed from the Plains tribes (especially the war and raiding complexes) and from the Pueblos (agricultural and ceremonial rituals).
In 1873, the United States held council with 376 Jicarilla Apaches under the leadership of San Pablo and José Largo. The Jicarillas were informed that the land upon which they were living now belonged to a company over which the government had no control. The government agent explained that protection against unfriendly settlers could not be guaranteed. However, if the Jicarillas transferred to the Mescalero Apache reservation then they would receive land and have their rations doubled. The Jicarillas were interested, but declined to make a commitment until they had consulted with others.
At a second council with several Jicarilla Apache bands, the United States proposed a reservation for the Jicarillas in exchange for $10,000 over a five-year period and $3,000 for education purposes over a ten-year period. The Jicarillas were to allot their land, have their children attend school, and have their affairs administered by the Southern Ute Agency.
Hopi Reservation, Arizona
The Hopi are a Pueblo people living in permanent villages. They have been farming their Arizona lands for more than a thousand years. While the United States has insisted on dealing with the Hopi as if they were a single tribe, the Hopi are, in fact, a group of independent pueblos united by a common language and cultural features.
In 1873, the Indian Office considered relocating the Hopis from their Arizona pueblos to land along the Little Colorado River or to Oklahoma. The Hopi vowed to resist any relocation as their ancient contract with the Great Spirit Massauw makes removal from the land impossible. After discussions with the Hopi, the Indian Agent recommended that a separate Hopi reservation be established.
In 1873, the Indian Agency for the Hopi was moved from Fort Defiance to Keams Canyon which is about 13 miles away from the Hopi pueblo of Walpi.
Rio Verde Reservation, Arizona
The Yavapai on the Rio Verde Reservation constructed an irrigation ditch. In their chapter on the Yavapai in the Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 10: Southwest Sigrid Khera and Patricia Mariella write:
“Despite a severe epidemic and other adverse conditions typical of forced settlements of a conquered people, these Yavapai, mainly by means of their own aboriginal tools, managed to excavate an irrigation ditch and produce several successful harvests.”
With regard to the non-Indian response, Sigrid Khera and Patricia Mariella write:
“A group of Tucson contractors who supplied Indian reservations was alarmed by the growing self-sufficiency of the Rio Verde Reservation population. These contractors pressed for a government order to transfer these Indians to the Apache Reservation at San Carlos.”
The Yavapai living in the Date Creek area were informed that they were to be moved to the Rio Verde Reservation. The move was being made without their consent. Chawmasecha, who had been an advocate of reservation life, refused to leave the familiar region. He led 240 Tolkepaya Yavapai west to the Colorado River Indian Reservation. While General O.O. Howard had said that the Yavapai could settle on the Colorado River Indian Reservation, General George Crook ordered them to be removed. U.S. Troops along with Pai scouts marched them back to the Rio Verde Reservation.
More 19th-century American Indian histories
Indians 101: The Yavapai and Initial Contact with the Americans
Indians 201: First U.S. treaties with the Navajo
Indians 201: The Navajo and Mexico
Indians 101: The Creation of the Fort McDowell Reservation
Indians 101: The Navajo Long Walk
Indians 101: Negotiating peace 150 years ago, 1872
Indians 101: Apache Prisoners of War
Indians 101: The Camp Grant Massacre