Plastics are not just an environmental hazard causing turtles and dolphins untimely drownings, but monumental environmental hazards from petrochemical products invading our bodies. I am very interested in accumulation, how much, and which organs or systems. What are the effects from a lifetime of exposure? How worried should we be? These and other questions surrounding toxicities have been the subject of an increasing number of studies, and the results are not looking good. Plastics seem to be as pervasive in living bodies as in the environment — which is in a crisis. Let’s start our journey through plastics accumulation in bodies with a look at marine life:
AQUATIC
1 July 2008
Ingested microscopic plastic translocates to the circulatory system of the mussel, Mytilus edulis (L.)
From the abstract:
Mussels were subsequently exposed to treatments containing seawater and microplastic (3.0 or 9.6 microm). After transfer to clean conditions, microplastic was tracked in the hemolymph. Particles translocated from the gut to the circulatory system within 3 days and persisted for over 48 days. Abundance of microplastic was greatest after 12 days and declined thereafter. Smaller particles were more abundant than larger particles and our data indicate as plastic fragments into smaller particles, the potential for accumulation in the tissues of an organism increases.
The complete report is available at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/es800249a
3 December 2018
Billions of nanoparticles accumulate in marine organisms within six hours
Billions… in just 6 hours. This article is a peer reviewed article from the University of Plymouth in the UK. It was published over four years ago, so why hasn’t it been a mainstream news article? It is alarming.
The research, led by the University of Plymouth, examined the uptake of nanoparticles by a commercially important mollusc, the great scallop (Pecten maximus).
After six hours exposure in the laboratory, billions of particles measuring 250nm (around 0.00025mm) had accumulated within the scallop’s intestines.
However, considerably more even smaller particles measuring 20nm (0.00002mm) had become dispersed throughout the body including the kidney, gill, muscle and other organs.
Snip
It was also used to demonstrate that the 20nm particles were no longer detectable after 14 days, whereas 250nm particles took 48 days to disappear.
So after just 50 days (with no exposure to additional plastics) ALL of the billions of plastics particles are either absorbed in the body or eliminated (back into the water).
The full study – Maya Al-Sid-Cheikh, Steve J. Rowland, Karen Stevenson, Claude Rouleau, Theodore B. Henry and Richard C. Thompson: Uptake, whole-body distribution & depuration of nanoplastics by the scallop Pecten maximus, at environmentally realistic concentrations – has been accepted for publication in Environmental Science and Technology, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b05266.
This was simply devastating to hear, and this article alone would make a good diary, but the overwhelming number of articles I found bear more familiarity. I was surprised not only of the number of relevant websites, but the age of some, going back over a decade.
29 April 2020
Microplastics disrupt hermit crabs' ability to choose shell, study suggests
The Guardian published this story about 2020 research from Queen’s University Belfast:
The team found that 25 of the crabs who had not been exposed to the microplastics explored the optimal-sized shells, with 21 of the crabs – 60% – taking up residence in them.
By contrast, crabs that had been exposed to microplastics took longer to begin such exploration and far fewer did so: just 10 made contact with the optimal-sized shells and only nine – 31% of the group – moved home.
This suggests exposure to microplastics affects the shell selection behaviour of hermit crabs, the team say, indicating that pollution could be affecting cognition.
22 June 2021
Micro and Nano Plastics Distribution in Fish as Model Organisms: Histopathology, Blood Response and Bioaccumulation in Different Organs
Micro- and nano-plastic (MP/NP) pollution represents a threat not only to marine organisms and ecosystems, but also a danger for humans. The effects of these small particles resulting from the fragmentation of waste of various types have been well documented in mammals, although the consequences of acute and chronic exposure are not fully known yet. In this review, we summarize the recent results related to effects of MPs/NPs in different species of fish, both saltwater and freshwater, including zebrafish, used as model organisms for the evaluation of human health risk posed by MNPs. The expectation is that discoveries made in the model will provide insight regarding the risks of plastic particle toxicity to human health, with a focus on the effect of long-term exposure at different levels of biological complexity in various tissues and organs, including the brain. The current scientific evidence shows that plastic particle toxicity depends not only on factors such as particle size, concentration, exposure time, shape, and polymer type, but also on co-factors, which make the issue extremely complex. We describe and discuss the possible entry pathways of these particles into the fish body, as well as their uptake mechanisms and bioaccumulation in different organs and the role of blood response (hematochemical and hematological parameters) as biomarkers of micro- and nano-plastic water pollution.
Emphasis MINE
In general, small size, high dose, and the presence of toxic additives or pollutants in the micro/nano plastics appear to induce cellular toxicity.
Snip
…the purpose of this review is not only to investigate the uptake routes and accumulation of MPs in fish, including zebrafish, but also to reveal the toxic effects of MPs in different organs (gut, liver, gills, and kidney), including the brain, with implications on growth and food consumption. In addition, we focused our attention on the central nervous system to study the neurotoxicity effects due to the crossing of the blood-brain barrier as well as on the blood response to MP/NPs. Microplastics cause anemia and alterations in hemato-biochemical parameters.
Snip
Plastic particles smaller than 10 μm cause more toxic effects than larger plastic particles with negative effects, such as decreased survival [214], decreased activity of a neurotransmission biomarker, AChE [10,73,91,215], decreased energy storage of glycogen [79,107,216], aberration of liver energy metabolism [145], effects on heart and lipid tissues [125,217], effects on heart rate [48,118], increased feeding time [35,62,212], inflammation [125], oxidative damage [61], necrosis [61], effects on body length [60], intestinal bacterial composition [30], and texture of brain and muscle including impact on the water balance in the brain [35,62,212].
This is not good news. It is a scientific report and can be difficult to wade through, but still very worth your time. In fact, every single article cited here demands more attention, please give what you can afford.
21 November 2013
Ingested plastic transfers hazardous chemicals to fish and induces hepatic stress
… fish exposed to virgin- and marine-plastic treatments show signs of stress in their livers, including glycogen depletion, fatty vacuolation and single cell necrosis. Severe glycogen depletion was seen in 74% of fish from the marine-plastic treatment (n = 19 fish), 46% of fish from the virgin-plastic treatment (n = 24 fish) and 0% of fish from the control treatment (n = 24 fish). Fatty vacuolation was seen in 47% of fish from the marine-plastic treatment, 29% of fish from the virgin-plastic treatment and 21% of fish from the control treatment. Single cell necrosis was seen in 11% of fish from the marine-plastic treatment and in 0% of fish from the control and virgin-plastic treatment. An eosinophilic focus of cellular alteration, a precursor to a tumor, was seen in one fish from the virgin-plastic treatment (Figure 4b) and a tumor, a hepatocellular adenoma (comprising 25% of the liver), was seen in one fish from the marine-plastic treatment (Figure 4c).
Micrographs show livers that are glycogen-rich from the control treatment (a) and glycogen-depleted from the virgin-plastic (b) and the marine-plastic treatment (c). An eosinophilic focus of cellular alteration, a precursor to a tumor, was observed in one fish from the virgin-plastic treatment (b). The circle highlights eosinophilic (pinkish coloration) hepatocytes, approximately twice as large as the basophilic (blue coloration) glycogen-depleted hepatocytes. The progression of neoplastic hepatocytes is evidence by the presence of a tumor, a hepatocellular adenoma, in one fish from the marine-plastic treatment (encircled in panel c).
Seabirds
30 January 2020
In Vivo Accumulation of Plastic-Derived Chemicals into Seabird Tissues
Authors: Kosuke Tanaka, Yutaka Watanuki, Hideshige Takada, Mayumi Ishizuka, Rei Yamashita, Mami Kazama, Nagako Hiki, Fumika Kashiwada, Kaoruko Mizukawa, Hazuki Mizukawa, David Hyrenbach, Michelle Hester, Yoshinori Ikenaka, Shouta M.M. Nakayama
Summary
Plastic debris is ubiquitous and increasing in the marine environment [1]. A wide range of marine organisms ingest plastic, and its impacts are of growing concern [2]. Seabirds are particularly susceptible to plastic pollution because of high rates of ingestion [3]. Because marine plastics contain an array of hazardous compounds, the chemical impacts of ingestion are concerning.
Several studies on wild seabirds suggested accumulation of plastic-derived chemicals in seabird tissues [4, 5, 6, 7]. However, to date, the evidence has all been indirect [4, 5, 6, 7], and it is unclear whether plastic debris is the source of these pollutants. To obtain direct evidence for the transfer and accumulation of plastic additives in the tissues of seabirds, we conducted an in vivo plastic feeding experiment. Environmentally relevant exposure of plastics compounded with one flame retardant and four ultraviolet stabilizers to streaked shearwater (Calonectris leucomelas) chicks in semi-field conditions resulted in the accumulation of the additives in liver and adipose fat of 91 to 120,000 times the rate from the natural diet. Additional monitoring of six seabird species detected these chemical additives only in those species with high plastic ingestion rates, suggesting that plastic debris can be a major pathway of chemical pollutants into seabirds. These findings provide direct evidence of seabird exposure to plastic additives and emphasize the role of marine debris ingestion as a source of chemical pollution in marine organisms.
Other Mammals
(other than humans)
24 April 2017
Tissue accumulation of microplastics in mice and biomarker responses suggest widespread health risks of exposure
This almost 6 year old research was published in scientific reports.
(Deng, Y. et al. Tissue accumulation of microplastics in mice and biomarker responses suggest widespread health risks of exposure. Sci. Rep. 7, 46687; doi: 10.1038/srep46687 (2017).
Previous studies have demonstrated that the accumulation and distribution of MPs in aquatic organisms is species-specific and can be influenced by particle size.
Snip
… data on tissue accumulation of MPs in mammalian models would be indispensable for risk assessment of MPs in human health.
Some interesting takeaways include…
All animals were alive after the 4 weeks of exposure. Full details about the body weight, organ weight, relative organ weight and food-intake are provided in Table S1. No significant changes for daily food consumption were found between control and MP treated groups. No significant differences were observed for the final body weight and liver weight between control and treatment groups. The relative weight of liver, however, significantly decreased in the high dose (0.5 mg/day) treatment groups. Among these groups, significantly increased food-intake was also observed in the mid and high dose treatment group of 20 μm MPs.
Additional points:
Compared with control mice, inflammation and lipid droplets were observed in the livers of PS-MPs-treated mice.
Snip
Previous studies have demonstrated that the accumulation and distribution of MPs in aquatic organisms is species-specific and can be influenced by particle size.
Snip
… data on tissue accumulation of MPs in mammalian models would be indispensable for risk assessment of MPs in human health.
Snip
Both MPs sizes tested here displayed tissue accumulation over time and were clearly visible as distinct fluorescent points in the liver, kidney and gut of exposed mice.
with that paragraphs ending:
The two sizes of MPs could still be observed in the three tissues within one week after termination of the exposure [to the microplastics].
HUMANS
Since self preservation is the most basic motivation for most of us, the abundance, concentration sites/organs, and effects on humans will likely be the only motivation for changes to our plastics assault for many.
Winter 2010
Plastics: Danger where we least expect it
Should we avoid the plastic water bottles, food cans, and myriad other products in our daily lives that contain BPA? Are we being harmed by a chemical that the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) says is present in detectable levels in 93 percent of Americans ages 6 and older?
Canada declared BPA a “dangerous substance” in 2008 and banned it from use in baby bottles, the first country to do so. After news circulated in Denmark about a 2009 study in Environmental Health Perspectives led by Michels, the city of Copenhagen banned water coolers with polycarbonate bottles from its city buildings. Michels—who also is associate professor of gynecology, obstetrics, and reproductive biology at Harvard Medical School, Brigham and Women’s Hospital—and her colleagues had followed 77 Harvard College students over a two-week period. The students drank cold beverages from stainless steel bottles one week and from polycarbonate bottles the other week. Urine samples showed a 69 percent increase in BPA levels during the polycarbonate week.
But FDA rulings on BPA have been contradictory. In 2008, the agency determined that BPA is safe…
Chemical and plastics industries maintain that BPA is safe and does not require regulation. “Our views are consistent with the many regulatory agencies around the world that have reviewed the science on bisphenol A,” says Steven G. Hentges, chief BPA scientist with the American Chemistry Council.
23 October 2018
UEG Week: Microplastics discovered in human stools across the globe in first study of its kind
Presented at the 26th UEG Week in Vienna on October 23, 2018 (United European Gastroenterology)
Researchers from the Medical University of Vienna and the Environment Agency Austria monitored a group of participants from countries across the world, including Finland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, the UK and Austria. The results show that every single stool sample tested positive for the presence of microplastic and up to nine different plastic types were identified.
Lead researcher Dr. Philipp Schwabl explained:
“This is the first study of its kind and confirms what we have long suspected, that plastics ultimately reach the human gut. Of particular concern is what this means to us, and especially patients with gastrointestinal diseases. While the highest plastic concentrations in animal studies have been found in the gut, the smallest microplastic particles are capable of entering the blood stream, lymphatic system and may even reach the liver. Now that we have first evidence for microplastics inside humans, we need further research to understand what this means for human health.”
17 August 2020
Micro- and nanoplastics detectable in human tissues from Science Daily
Source: American Chemical Society
To find out [if plastic accumulates in these organs], the researchers collaborated with Diego Mastroeni, Ph.D., to obtain samples from a large repository of brain and body tissues that was established to study neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's. The 47 samples were taken from lungs, liver, spleen and kidneys -- four organs likely to be exposed to, filter or collect microplastics.
Snip
The method allows the researchers to detect dozens of types of plastic components within human tissues, including polycarbonate (PC), polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyethylene (PE). When paired with a previously developed mass spectrometry assay, plastic contamination was detected in every sample. Bisphenol A (BPA), still used in many food containers despite health concerns, was found in all 47 human samples.
To the researchers' knowledge, their study is the first to examine micro- and nanoplastic occurrence in human organs from individuals with a known history of environmental exposure. "The tissue donors provided detailed information on their lifestyle, diet and occupational exposures," Halden says. "Because these donors have such well-defined histories, our study provides the first clues on potential micro- and nanoplastic exposure sources and routes."
Another article on this same study was presented by Forbes.
27 January 2021
Inhalable textile microplastic fibers impair airway epithelial growth is a research study conducted by F. van Dijk, S. Song, G.W.A van Eck, X. Wu, I.S.T. Bos, D.H.A. Boom, I. Kooter, D.C.J. Spierings, R. Wardenaar, M. Cole, A. Salvati, R. Gosens, View ORCID ProfileB.N. Melgert
University of Groningen, the Netherlands
From the Abstract:
We observed that the presence of particularly nylon microfibers had a negative impact on the growth and development of airway organoids. This effect was mediated by components leaking from nylon. Moreover, our data suggested that microplastic textile fibers may especially harm the developing airways or airways undergoing repair. Our results call for an urgent need to assess exposure and inhalation levels in indoor environments to accurately determine the actual risk of these fibers to human health.
Emphasis MINE
The full report’s findings are available to view or download there (PDF).
24 March 2022
Apparently just 10 months ago The Guardian brought us the headline:
Microplastics found in human blood for first time
(I missed this coverage at the time. Thanks novaphyche for your article here: Microplastics found in human bloodstreams for the first time!)
“Our study is the first indication that we have polymer particles in our blood – it’s a breakthrough result,” said Prof Dick Vethaak…
He adds:
“We also know in general that babies and young children are more vulnerable to chemical and particle exposure,” he said. “That worries me a lot.”
The new research is published in the journal Environment International and adapted existing techniques to detect and analyse particles as small as 0.0007mm. Some of the blood samples contained two or three types of plastic. The team used steel syringe needles and glass tubes to avoid contamination, and tested for background levels of microplastics using blank samples.
Snip
“The big question is what is happening in our body?” Vethaak said. “Are the particles retained in the body? Are they transported to certain organs, such as getting past the blood-brain barrier?” And are these levels sufficiently high to trigger disease? We urgently need to fund further research so we can find out.”
How they found it in other organs and tissue without finding it in the blood evades reason to me.
July 2022
Lancet asks Should we worry about the accumulation of microplastics in human organs?
Large plastic wastes can have direct negative effects on wildlife through different mechanisms, including the ingestion of plastic debris. At least 1,565 wildlife species, living in different environments, have been documented to ingest plastic remains.
What about us? Is plastic also in the daily menu of humans? Large plastic wastes released in the natural environment do not entirely degrade but break down in smaller particles, becoming micro (<5 mm) and nanoplastics (<1 µm). Evidence is now rapidly accumulating showing that we do ingest plastic specks on a daily basis, and recent work even suggests that this can represent thousands of particles per day.
Snip
Horvatits et al. assessed microplastic contamination in liver, spleen and kidney samples. The number of plastic particles ranged from 0 to 2.2 per gram of healthy tissue, but this was indistinguishable from background contamination of blank samples, which also ranged from 0.2 to 2.2 particles. However, liver samples from patients suffering from liver disease (cirrhosis) had a 8-fold increase in plastic contamination compared to blank and to liver samples from healthy individuals [median number of particles per gram of tissue = 8.4 vs 0.6 (blank), and 8.4 vs 0.7 (healthy liver)].
Quite happy I stopped chewing on pens.
[With this smaller sampling, they do not yet know if] plastic particles recovered from cirrhotic livers is a side-product of the pathology and not the actual triggering factor. Nevertheless, even though microplastics alone might not trigger liver disease, it cannot be excluded that they might contribute to accentuate and exacerbate liver fibrosis.
6 December 2022
Microplastics Found To ‘Stick Around’ In Human Organs by Luana Steffen
[F]orty-seven samples were obtained and analyzed from human liver and fat via mass spectrometry. They found evidence of plastic contamination in every single sample. The researchers looked for numerous types of plastic matter within the tissue, such as polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, and polycarbonate, but most of the plastic found was a substance used in many food containers, known as Bisphenol-A.
Snip
Regarding plastic exposure to human health, scientists still don’t know the extent of the risks posed. However, previous studies in animals and wildlife have linked nano- and micro-plastic exposure to infertility, inflammation and cancer, suffocation, and death.
And an honorable mention goes out to this fall 2020 study:
17 August 2020
Ways to detect nano-plastics in human organs developed as scientists raise health concerns over plastic pollution
The health impacts, however, are not clear. Our bodies respond to a foreign object by triggering inflammation, which may lead to more severe health issues, including cancer. "Plastics have been demonstrated to cause adverse effects in the environment and animals including mammals," Dr. Rolf Halden from Arizona State University, told MEA WorldWide (MEAWW). He is one of the authors of the study.
In 2019, the team of researches[sic] identified bisphenol A and other plastic building blocks called monomers in 47 human tissue samples of liver and adipose [fat] tissue. Bisphenol A, which is used in building plastics, is controversial because of its links with health issues. "Here we report a new method to directly interrogate human tissues for the presence of microplastics," Dr. Halden said…
I am ending with some helpful information to remove plastics intake. We all need to focus on identifying solutions:
SOLUTIONS
20 March 2018
How to Detox From Plastics and Other Endocrine Disruptors
by Michael Edwards
They report on plastic water bottles, among other problems:
Bottled water samples were collected and analyzed by scientists over a ten-month investigation. The study analyzed 259 bottles from 19 locations in nine countries across 11 different brands and found an average of 325 plastic particles for every liter of water being sold.
“In one bottle of Nestlé Pure Life, concentrations were as high as 10,000 plastic pieces per litre of water. Of the 259 bottles tested, only 17 were free of plastics, according to the study.” – Drinking Bottled Water Means Drinking Microplastics
And give a long list of solutions. At least they will help:
Ways to Limit Plastic Contamination & Plastic Use
- Keep your home clean, and vacuum regularly
- Filter tap water
- Always avoid artificial fragrances
- Stay away from warm or hot plastics, don’t even breathe near them
- Avoid canned foods
- Avoid conventional personal care products like shampoos, soaps, moisturizers, makeup
- Avoid conventional and big-ag produce (pesticides and herbicides have plastic residues)
- Cook your own foods using whole-food ingredients
- Stop using plastic straws, even in restaurants
- Purchase food, like cereal, pasta, and rice from bulk bins and fill a reusable bag or container
- Use paper or your own reusable shopping bags, bulk goods bags, and bring your own mesh produce bags (FYI: I suspect that many paper bags contain BPA and BPS)
- No more chewing gum, it’s made of plastic
- Buy boxes and glass instead of plastic bottles whenever possible
- Use a reusable bottle or mug for your beverages or coffee and soda refills (but you don’t drink that crap, do you?)
- Boycott any restaurant that still uses styrofoam – Why is that still a thing?
- Use matches or invest in a refillable metal lighter – avoid the plastic disposable ones
- Eat real, whole foods – fresh foods equates to less packaging and less previous plastic contact
- Don’t use plasticware ever, bring your own if need be
- Use cloth diapers – disposable diapers are extremely toxic to the environment and your baby
- Make your own cleaning products
- Pack your lunch in glass containers and reusable bags.
- Use a razor with replaceable blades instead of a disposable razor
- Find other disposal products that can be replaced by their non-disposable counterparts
- Avoid seafood
- Avoid cheap supplements and be wary of sports supplements
Some of the additional relevant reading over the past 2 years at DailyKos include:
Marine fecal matter, essential for the biological carbon pump, is being disrupted by microplastics by Pakalolo
Breathe deep…and what do you get? Plastic! by Joyce Siegel
My Faith is in Science by Paul Frea
Anti-Capitalist Meetup: Capitalism is turning you in to plastic people my article from near 2 years ago
55 Chemicals Not Before Reported in Humans Found in Blood of Pregnant Women & Their Newborns from mettle fatigue
Thank you all for reading this briefing on our journey with this petrochemical nuisance turned global environmental threat to all beings. Plastics opened the possibilities. So useful, in so many ways! Hard, pliable, any shape you desire… too good to be true is what flashes through these synapses. It is likely a slow death, starting with our plastic teething rings and continuing throughout our lives. It also blocked the need for innovation of other materials to fulfill our needs. Current innovation in plastics alternatives has 55 years of catch up to do!
I found many more stories — some covering the same research, but far from all — and will continue to revisit this topic with more findings of toxicity as well as solutions.