Welcome to The Mad Logophile. Here we explore words; their origins, evolution, usage. Words are alive. They are born, they evolve and, sometimes, they die. They are our principal tool for communicating with one another. There are millions of words yet only an estimated 171,476 words are in common current use. As a logophile, I enjoy discovering new words, using them and learning about their origins. Please join me and other word lovers as we delve into the wonderful world of words.
Scientific terminology... pretty huge topic. I certainly can't list all the possible words/terms or I'd be busy for weeks and this diary would run into thousands of words. How to narrow it down? I went to my stack of word books and found the answer: 100 Science Words Every College Graduate Should Know. This is an American Heritage publication, part of their 100 Words series. I used another of them (...That Are Commonly Mispronounced) for the basis of another diary. It was a good start. Then I crawled around the Web for some more. And asked my scientifically smart Hubby.
These words come from many different scientific disciplines. I relied on many different references for these definitions. Please, if they are not perfect, keep in mind that I'm not a scientist, ok? The major field in which the word is primarily used follows the word in parentheses. This week we're doing it glossary-style.
Absolute zero (physics): Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature, at which point the atoms of a substance transmit no thermal energy - they are completely at rest. It is 0 degrees on the Kelvin scale, which translates to - 273.15 degrees Celsius (or - 459.67 degrees Fahrenheit). Robert Boyle, in his 1665 New Experiments and Observations touching Cold, first presented the concept. Lord Kelvin based his thermodynamic temperature scale on the idea, extrapolating backward to absolute zero based purely on the laws of thermodynamics.
Algorithm (math): A set of instructions for solving a problem, especially on a computer. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and many other fields. Every process, even mundane ones, has an algorithm. For example, the algorithm for publishing a diary includes clicking on the proper tab, typing into the space provided, adding tags, etc.
Allele (biology): [uh-leel] One member of a pair or series of genes that occupies a specific position on a specific chromosome. The word is a short form of allelomorph (other form), which was used in the early days of genetics to describe variant forms of a gene detected as different phenotypes. Alleles are alternative DNA sequences.
Alternating current (physics): An electric current that reverses direction at regular intervals. OTOH, in direct current (DC), the flow of the electric charge travels only in one direction. When electricity was first harnessed for our use, there was a question of which was better, AC or DC. Thomas Edison championed DC while Nikola Tesla supported the use of AC. This led to the War of the Currents.
Amygdala (biology): [uh-mig-duh-luh] The amygdala is an almond shaped mass of nuclei located deep within the temporal lobes. This very small organ is the seat of fear and intense emotion. It is also associated with a range of mental conditions from normalcy to depression to even autism. You can read more about it here.
Anaphylaxis (biology): Anaphylaxis is a severe, potentially life-threatening allergic reaction. It can occur within seconds or minutes of exposure to something you're allergic to, such as the venom from a bee sting or a peanut. It requires an immediate trip to the emergency room and/or an immediate injection of epinephrine. These effects are produced by the release of mediators, specifically histamine. Allergies are a mild form of anaphylaxis.
Angiogenesis (biology): Angiogenesis, the growth of new capillary blood vessels in the body, is an important natural process used for healing and reproduction. The body controls this by producing a precise balance of growth and inhibitory factors. If this balance is disturbed it can lead to diseases like cancer, skin diseases, age-related blindness, diabetic ulcers, cardiovascular disease, stroke, and many others. A new class of cancer treatments that block angiogenesis are now approved and available.
Antibody (biology): An antibody is a protein created by the body's immune system when it detects harmful substances (antigens). The production of antibodies is a major function of the immune system and is carried out by a white blood cell called a B cell (B lymphocyte). Antibodies can be triggered by and directed at foreign proteins, microorganisms, or toxins. Some antibodies are autoantibodies and attack our own tissues, which is what causes autoimmune disorders.
Apoptosis (biology): [ap-up-toe-sys] Sometimes called programmed cell death, this process eliminates cells without releasing harmful substances into the surrounding area. Apoptosis helps maintain health by eliminating old cells, unnecessary cells, and unhealthy cells. When programmed cell death does not work right, cells that should be eliminated may become immortal, e.g. in cancer and leukemia. When it works overly well, it kills too many cells and inflicts grave tissue damage. This is the case in strokes and neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer, Huntington and Parkinson diseases.
Ball lightning (physics): A rare phenomenon, it is a luminous sphere that is generally several centimeters in diameter. It usually occurs near the ground during thunderstorms, in close association with cloud-to-ground lightning. It may be red, orange, yellow, white, or blue in color and is often accompanied by a hissing sound and a distinctive odor. It normally lasts only a few seconds, usually moves around quickly and then vanishes either silently or explosively. Ball lightning has been reported to cause damage by burning or melting but is usually harmless. Theories posit that they are air or gas behaving abnormally, high-density plasma phenomena, an air vortex containing luminous gases, and microwave radiation trapped within a plasma bubble.
Bandwidth (computer): The amount of data that can be carried by a digital communication medium, often expressed in hertz. Your bandwidth controls how much data you can send through a network or modem connection. Here's a great analogy: You can think of bandwidth as a highway with cars traveling on it. The highway is the network connection and the cars are the data. The wider the highway, the more cars can travel on it at one time. Therefore more cars can get to their destinations faster. The same principle applies to computer data -- the more bandwidth, the more information that can be transferred within a given amount of time.
Big bang (astronomy): An astronomy theory that says the Universe began with a super-powerful explosion. Georges-Henri Lemaitre is known as the father of the Big Bang Theory. It is the dominant scientific theory about the origin of the universe. According to the Theory, the universe began about 10 to 20 billion years ago from a cosmic explosion at a single point, and has since been expanded in all directions.
Binary (general): At its simplest, it describes anything composed of two parts. In math, it pertains to a system of numerical notation to the base 2, in which each place of a number, expressed as 0 or 1, corresponds to a power of 2. In chemistry, it refers to a compound containing only two elements or groups or consisting of only molecules consisting of two kinds of atoms. In astronomy, binary refers to a system of two stars that revolve about their common center of mass.
Biodegradation (biology): Biodegradation is the breakdown of organic contaminants by microbial organisms into smaller compounds. The organisms transform the contaminants through metabolic or enzymatic processes. These processes vary greatly, but frequently the final product of the degradation is carbon dioxide or methane. Biodegradation is a key processes in the natural attenuation of contaminants at hazardous waste sites. It is an important word to know as we continue to look for ways in which to deal with waste and garbage.
Black hole (astronomy): A black hole is a region of space that has so much mass concentrated in it that there is no way for a nearby object to escape its gravitational pull. They are the evolutionary endpoint of massive stars, stars 10 - 15 times as large as our Sun. These suns burn out and begin to collapse in on themselves and form a singularity. As the density increases, the light rays emitted from the star are bent and eventually wrap irrevocably around the star. Because no light escapes after the star reaches this infinite density, it is called a black hole. But despite depictions from Hollywood, they are not cosmic vacuum cleaners.
Brownian motion (physics): Random motion of particles suspended in a fluid, arising from those particles being struck by individual molecules of the fluid. In 1827 the English botanist Robert Brown noticed that pollen grains suspended in water jiggled about under the lens of the microscope. The first good explanation of Brownian movement was advanced in 1877: In my way of thinking the phenomenon is a result of thermal molecular motion in the liquid environment (of the particles). This is indeed the case. A suspended particle is constantly and randomly bombarded from all sides by molecules of the liquid. This causes it to jump. These small random jumps are what make up Brownian motion.
Boson (physics): From Dictionary.com - Any of a class of particles, such as the photon, pion, or alpha particle, that have zero or integral spin and obey statistical rules permitting any number of identical particles to occupy the same quantum state. Yeah, that's not very helpful, is it? Bosons are particles that can occupy the same place, as opposed to fermions which cannot. So bosons are considered to transmit interactions (force carriers), or the constituents of radiation. You can read more about them at the CERN website.
Cambrian explosion (paleontology): Between about 570 and 530 million years ago, a burst of diversification occurred, with the eventual appearance of the lineages of almost all animals living today. This is termed the Cambrian explosion, taking the name of the geological age in whose early part it occurred. It is often used as an "argument" against evolution, the "reasoning" going like this: nearly all animal phyla made their first appearance in the fossil record at essentially the same time, so they were all created at the same time. **cough**
Capacitor (physics): A device used in electrical circuits. The capacitor stores an electrical charge for short periods of time, and then returns it to the circuit. This is why, even if it's unplugged, your TV or other device can still hold enough of a charge to hurt you.
Carbon sequestration (biology): An important concept in the fight against global warming, carbon sequestration refers to storage of carbon that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere. The most common example in nature is during the photosynthesis process of trees and plants, which store carbon as they absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) during growth. Because they soak up the carbon that would otherwise rise up and trap heat in the atmosphere, trees and plants are important players in efforts to stave off global warming. Read more here.
Centrifugal/centripetal force (physics): For circular motion to occur there must be a constant force acting on a body, pushing it toward the center of the circular path. This force is the centripetal (center-seeking) force. According to Newton's third law of motion, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The centripetal force, the action, is balanced by a reaction force, the centrifugal (center-fleeing) force. The two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Cheddite (chemistry): An explosive composed of a chlorate or perchlorate mixed with a fatty substance, like castor oil or petroleum jelly. It is easily made therefore it's a favorite of terrorists and anarchists. Cheddite is also the commercial name for an compound used as an explosive primer for shotgun cartridges. It contains 90% potassium chlorate, 7% paraffin, 3% petroleum jelly, and traces of carbon black.
Chemosynthesis (biology): Chemosynthesis is a process some organisms use to produce energy. It's akin to photosynthesis, but without the utilization of sunlight. The energy comes from the oxidization of chemicals which seep up from the Earth's crust. The organisms that use chemosynthesis (all bacteria) are found around hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. They are adapted to circumstances which would have been commonplace billion of years ago, leading some to call them descendants of the earliest life on Earth.
Chromosome (biology): A threadlike linear strand of DNA and associated proteins in the nucleus of animal and plant cells that carries the genes and functions in the transmission of hereditary information. So called because the structures contain a substance that stains readily with basic dyes (chroma=color). This year's Nobel Prize for medicine was given for chromosome research.
Cognitive dissonance (biology): A condition of conflict or anxiety resulting from inconsistency between one's beliefs and one's actions. Common examples are opposing animal slaughter yet eating meat or knowing that smoking is bad for you yet continuing to smoke. Leon Festinger published the theory of cognitive dissonance in 1957. I think it may have something to do with the right-wing's craziness.
Complementarity (physics): The notion that a single quantum mechanical entity can behave either as a particle or as wave, but never simultaneously as both. Niels Bohr developed this theory with Heisenberg, as a philosophical adjunct to the recently developed mathematics of quantum mechanics and in particular the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Cyanobacteria (biology): Better known as blue-green algae, it photosynthetically produces oxygen; some species are capable of fixing nitrogen. These can be ecologically significant because they add biomass and nitrogen to barren areas over long periods of time. Some fascinating research on cyanobacteria is happening in Hawai'i.
Dark energy/matter (physics): Dark matter was first theorized back in 1933 by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky. He noted that galaxies shouldn't be able to hold themselves together with just the regular matter we can see. There must be some additional, invisible matter surrounding the regular matter that provides the additional gravitational force to hold everything together. Dark energy is a hypothetical form of energy that permeates all of space and is believed to increase the rate of expansion of the universe. Dark matter and dark energy are two of the most vexing problems in science today. Together they dominate the universe, comprising some 96 percent of all mass and energy. But we don't know exactly what they are. Some scientists think they are the same thing and call this dark fluid. Future research into this should be very exciting.
Dendrochronology (biology): The science of dating trees by their rings. Scientists can identify past events, including climactic changes, in this way. Discovered by A.E. Douglass from the University of Arizona, who noted that the wide rings of certain species of trees were produced during wet years and, inversely, narrow rings during dry seasons. Read more here.
Doppler effect (physics): The Doppler effect is the perceived change in frequency of sound emitted by a source moving relative to the observer. You know when an ambulance goes by and the note of the engine becomes noticeably lower? The effect was first noted by Christian Doppler in 1842. It is used to measure velocities via the reflection of a transmitted wave from the moving object: ultrasound for blood in arteries, radar for speeding cars and thunderstorms. The velocities of distant galaxies are measured using the Doppler effect (the red shift). Demos, if you want to know more.
Echolocation (biology): The location of objects by their echoes is a highly specialized faculty used by some animals. Dolphins and bats are the best known. The animal sends out clicks or other sounds and, by the reflection, they find their prey. This technique was the basis of sonar. It is now being experimented with as an aide to the blind, based on the comic character Daredevil. A cool juxtaposition of geek-ness.
Electron (physics): An elementary particle with a negative charge and a very small mass. Electrons are normally found in orbits around the nucleus of an atom. Electrons were discovered by J. J. Thomson in 1897. In the early 1930's the magnification limit had been reached and there was a scientific desire to see the fine details of the interior structures of organic cells. This led to the invention of the electron microscope developed by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska in Germany in 1931.
Embryo (biology): An organism in its early stages of development, especially before it has reached a distinctively recognizable form. In humans, this is the correct term for implantation through the eighth week of development. It is important to understand the stages of development in regards the abortion issue.
Endorphin (biology): A group of hormones that bind to opiate receptors and are found mainly in the brain. Endorphins reduce the sensation of pain and affect emotions. They have a similar chemical structure to morphine. In addition to their analgesic effect, endorphins are thought to be involved in controlling the body's response to stress, regulating contractions of the intestinal wall, and determining mood. There are numerous antidepressants (Prozac, Zoloft) that are specifically designed to mimic the effects of endorphins in the brain to make a depressed person feel better or cope with stressful situations. Studies have shown that physical activity can have a similar effect as antidepressants because it stimulates the production of endorphins.
Endotherm/poikilotherm (biology): [in-doh-therm, poy-kee-low-therm] An endotherm is an organism that generates heat to maintain its body temperature, typically above the temperature of its surroundings; warm-blooded. A poikilotherm (fish or reptiles) has a body temperature that varies with the temperature of its surroundings; cold-blooded.
Enzyme (biology): A protein molecule that helps other organic molecules enter into chemical reactions with one another but is itself unaffected by these reactions. Enzymes act as catalysts for organic biochemical reactions. Although enzymes are found in small quantities, they are extremely powerful; 30 grams of pure crystalline pepsin would digest nearly 2 metric tons of egg white in a matter of hours. When selecting a supplement ensure that it contains: protease, amylase, lipase and lactase.
Estivation (biology): We all know about hibernation, an animal passing the winter in a semi-comatose state. The opposite of winter hibernation is estivation. It is a resting interval associated with warm, dry periods in areas that have alternating wet and dry seasons. Animals are induced to estivate when drought and heat interfere with their activities. Animals that estivate include alligators, certain fish and frogs, snails and lemurs.
Etiology (biology): The cause or origin of a disease or disorder as determined by medical diagnosis. The word is mainly used in medicine, where it is the science that deals with the causes or origin of disease, the factors which produce or predispose toward a certain disease or disorder. Today in medicine when one hears (or reads) that the etiology is unknown, translate that into we don't know the cause.
Eutrophication (biology): [you-trof-ih-cay-shun] Eutrophication is a process whereby water bodies, such as lakes, estuaries, or slow-moving streams receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive plant growth (algae and nuisance weeds). Nutrients can come from many sources, such as fertilizers, soil erosion and sewage run-off. This condition causes a lack of oxygen (hypoxia) in the water, killing most animals that live there. Eutrophication is also thought to be responsible for choking coral reefs.
Fermat's last theorem (math): Arguably, the most famous theorem in the history of mathematics, it states that no three positive integers a, b, and c can satisfy the equation an + bn = cn for any integer value of n greater than two. Pierre de Fermat first posited the theorem in 1637, but it was not proven until 1995 despite the efforts of many illustrious mathematicians. The day that it was proved, I was honored to go see Stephen Hawking lecture in Seattle. I deeply regret not standing up (the mic was literally right next to me) and asking him about it. Instead, some weirdo asked him about lucid dreaming **sigh**
Fibonacci sequence (math): In the Fibonacci Sequence (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ...), each term is the sum of the two previous terms (for instance, 2+3=5, 3+5=8, ...). As you go farther and farther to the right in this sequence, the ratio of a term to the one before it will get closer and closer to the Golden Ratio. The fascinating thing about it is that this sequence is actually found in nature with amazing frequency. For an interesting take on this (and a blast from your childhood) check out Donald In Mathmagic Land (go down to the one called The Golden Rectangle).
Fission/fusion (physics): Fission splits a massive element into fragments, releasing energy in the process. Fusion joins two light elements, forming a more massive element, also releasing energy in the process. In fission, an element with a very large number of nucleons (Uranium, for example) is split, forming two fragments which each have fewer nucleons; the total number of nucleons is always constant. In fusion, very light atoms are fused into a more massive atom.
Fundamental force (physics): The fundamental forces (or fundamental interactions) of physics are the ways that individual particles interact with each other. It turns out that for every single interaction that we've observed take place in the universe, they can be broken down to be described by only four (well, generally) types of interactions. These are gravity, electromagnetism, strong force and weak force. Many physicists believe that all four of the fundamental forces are, in fact, the manifestations of a single unified force which has yet to be discovered.
Game theory (math): What economists call game theory psychologists call the theory of social situations. Most research in game theory focuses on how groups of people interact. There are two main branches of game theory: cooperative (or coalitional) and non-cooperative (or strategic). The main purpose of game theory is to consider situations where decisions are strategic reactions to other agent's actions. The formal conception of game theory as part of economic theory was first organized in John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern's, Theory of Games and Economic Behavior (1944).
Genome (biology): The sum of all information contained in the DNA for any living thing. The sequence of all the nucleotides in all the chromosomes of an organism. Virtually every single cell in the body contains a complete copy of the approximately 3 billion DNA base pairs that make up the human genome. Nearly every human ailment is based in our genes. Thanks to the Human Genome Project, doctors have much more powerful tools to study the role that genetic factors play in disease. You can read more about the HGP here.
Gluon (physics): The so-called messenger particle of the strong nuclear force (see fundamental force), which binds subatomic particles known as quarks within the protons and neutrons of stable matter. Quarks interact by emitting and absorbing gluons. This is analogous to the exchange of photons in the electromagnetic force between two charged particles. For more info than you ever need about gluons, try here.
Heliocentric (astronomy): Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) outlined his theory in 1543 (the year he died), though he had arrived at it several decades earlier. But he had the last laugh. His findings drove the final nail in the coffin of geocentrism.
Histone (biology): Any of several small simple proteins that are most commonly found in association with the DNA in chromatin and contain a high proportion of basic amino acids. They are responsible for "packaging" the DNA inside cell nuclei. They also control, in some degree, the expression of proteins from DNA. This is another word connected with the research of DNA and genomes.
Hypothesis (general): The first step in the scientific method, a statement of a possible explanation for some natural phenomenon. A hypothesis is tested by drawing conclusions from it; if observation and experimentation show a conclusion to be false, the hypothesis must be false. It's important to know the difference between a hypothesis and a theory. The former has no proof, one way or the other. A theory, however, is a more or less verified or established explanation accounting for known facts or phenomena. So, when debating evolution, it's important to remember that it is verified and is not simply a hypothesis.
Imaginary number (math): An imaginary number is a mathematical term for a number whose square is a negative real number. Imaginary numbers are represented with the letter i, which stands for the square root of -1. While imaginary numbers are meaningless to most individuals, they are indispensable in fields such as quantum mechanics, electrical engineering, computer programming, signal processing, and cartography. When imaginary numbers were first defined by Rafael Bombelli in 1572, mathematicians believed that they did not really exist, hence their name.
Interferon (biology): A protein produced by cells after they have been exposed to a virus. Interferon prevents the virus from reproducing within the infected cells and can also induce resistance to the virus in other cells. Interferon research has led to treatments for cancer, multiple sclerosis, hepatitis and autoimmune disorders.
Isomers (chemistry, physics): In chemistry, organic compounds having the same empirical formula, that is, the same number of the same kind of atoms but different structural formulas and therefore different physical and chemical properties. An example would be propanol. In physics, any of two or more nuclides (species of atomic nuclei) that consist of the same number of protons and the same number of neutrons but differ in energy and manner of radioactive decay, and that exist for a measurable interval of time. An example of this is cobalt58.
Isotope (physics): Atoms with the same number of electrons and protons, but different numbers of neutrons. There are over 200 isotopes. One common isotope is carbon C13 which is used for carbon dating.
Joule (physics): A unit of electrical energy equal to the work done when a current of 1 ampere is passed through a resistance of 1 ohm for 1 second. James Prescott Joule demonstrated that heat is a form of energy and later determined the amount of mechanical and electrical energy expended in the generation of heat energy. He established the principle that various forms of energy are basically the same and are interchangeable. The joule unit was named in his honor in 1882.
Junk DNA (biology): DNA that does not code for proteins or their regulation. It constitutes approximately 95 percent of the human genome. Increasing evidence is now indicating that this DNA is not "junk" at all; it has been found to have various regulatory roles. This is a very important reason why genetic engineering is still in the debate stage.
Krill (biology): Small marine crustaceans of the order Euphausiacea that are the principal food for many marine animals. More than anything else, krill are the engine that powers the Antarctic ecosystem. They drift around in swarms that are so large it difficult to imagine. The krill population of the world has been estimated at outweighing the human population of the world. So, if their population falls due to ocean warming, pollution or other causes, this will affect the entire food supply.
KT extinction/boundary (astronomy): What killed the dinosaurs? 1980, a group of scientists at the University of California at Berkeley proposed a stunning and convincing mechanism for the K-T extinction; meaning the extinction of dinosaurs at the boundary between the Cretaceous period (K) and the Tertiary period (T). About 60% of all species that are present below the K-T boundary are not present above the line that divides the Age of Dinosaurs from the Age of Mammals.
Kuiper belt (astronomy): The Kuiper [Ky-Per] Belt is the disk-shaped region of icy debris about 2.8 billion to 4.6 billion miles from our Sun. Its existence was confirmed only a decade ago. The Kuiper Belt and its collection of icy objects (KBOs) are an emerging area of research in planetary science.
Kwashiorkor (biology): [kwah-shee-awr-kawr] A severe malnutrition of infants and young children (primarily in tropical and subtropical regions) caused by deficiency in the quality and quantity of protein in the diet. It is characterized by anemia, edema, potbelly, depigmentation of the skin, loss or change in hair color, an digestion problems. This is what we are trying to stop when we donate time and money to charities that feed children in undeveloped countries.
Logic gate (electronics): A logic gate is a basic part of a digital circuit. Most logic gates have two inputs and one output. At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the two binary conditions low (0) or high (1), represented by different voltage levels. The logic state of a terminal can, and generally does, change often, as the circuit processes data.
Magnetosphere (astronomy): The magnetosphere is that area of space, around the Earth, that is controlled by the Earth's magnetic field. The Earth's environment extends all the way from the sun to the Earth and beyond. This is not an empty wasteland of space; near-Earth space is full of streaming particles, electromagnetic radiation, and constantly changing electric and magnetic fields. All of these things make up our magnetosphere.
Magnitude (astronomy): In astronomy, magnitude refers to stars. Apparent magnitude (m) is determined using the apparent brightness as observed, with no consideration given to how distance is influencing the observation. Absolute magnitude (M) is the "true" brightness, with the distance dependence factored out. Because the ancient Greeks put the brightest stars into group 1 (magnitude 1 stars), bright stars have lower numbers. Some numbers had to be added to the magnitude scale since then. We now have lower, even negative, magnitudes for very bright objects and higher ones for very dim stars that can be seen with telescopes. The brightest star in the night sky is Sirius, with a magnitude of minus 1.4. Seismologists use a magnitude scale to express the seismic energy released by each earthquake. Dr. Charles F. Richterrecognized that the seismic waves radiated by all earthquakes can provide good estimates of their magnitudes. On the Richter Scale, magnitude is expressed in whole numbers and decimal fractions. For example, a magnitude 5.3 might be computed for a moderate earthquake, and a strong earthquake might be rated as magnitude 6.3. Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude.
Matrix (general): Matrix has meanings in many sciences, but all refer to the place or point from which something originates, takes form, or develops. In biology, a matrix is the intercellular substance of a tissue. In geology, it is the fine-grained portion of a rock in which coarser crystals or rock fragments are embedded. In mathematics, it's a rectangular array of numeric or algebraic quantities subject to mathematical operations. Computer matrices are the network of intersections between input and output leads in a computer, functioning as an encoder or a decoder. And in linguistics, a matrix is a rectangular display of features characterizing a set of linguistic items, especially phonemes. Oh, and I think there was some movie made about one... ;)
Melanoma (biology): A dark-pigmented, malignant, frequently widely spreading tumor arising from a melanocyte (the skin cells that give you color) and occurring most commonly in the skin. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight or tanning lamps and beds greatly increases your risk of developing melanoma. For every 100,000 people in the United States, there are 17.7 new cases of melanoma each year. So, keep an eye on those moles!
Meson (physics): Any member of a family of subatomic particles composed of a quark and an antiquark. Mesons are sensitive to the strong force (see fundamental force) interaction that binds the components of the nucleus by governing the behavior of their constituent quarks. Mesons serve as a useful tool for studying the properties and interactions of quarks.
Mitochondria (biology): Mitochondria are the energy factories of the cells. They contain genetic material and many enzymes important for cell metabolism, including those responsible for the conversion of food to usable energy. Mitochondria have their own independent genome, the material of which is known as mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Mutations in mitochondrial genes can lead to a number of mitochondrial disorders. The muscle or brain are most commonly affected since they rely so heavily on mitochondria for their energy needs.
Monotreme (biology): The most primitive order of mammals, characterized by certain birdlike and reptilian features; hatching young from eggs, and having a single opening for the digestive, urinary, and genital organs. Only the duckbill platypus and the echidnas of Australia and New Guinea belong to the Monotremata order.
Munchausen syndrome (biology): A condition in which a person intentionally fakes, simulates, worsens, or self-induces an injury or illness for the main purpose of being treated, to get attention. It is named after Baron von Munchausen, who traveled around telling fantastic tales about his imaginary exploits. In 1951, Richard Asher applied the term as we know it today. The term Munchausen syndrome is often used interchangeably with factitious disorder. A related condition, called Munchausen by proxy syndrome, refers to a caregiver who fakes symptoms by causing injury to someone else, often a child, creating a situation in which they also receive attention and sympathy.
Mutation (biology): In the living cell, DNA undergoes frequent chemical changes, especially when it is being replicated. Usually, these changes are quickly repaired. When they are not this results in a mutation. Mutation is a failure in DNA repair. Mutations range in size from a single DNA building block (DNA base) to a large segment of a chromosome. Gene mutations can be inherited from a parent or acquired. Genetic changes that occur in more than 1 percent of the population are called polymorphisms. They are responsible for many of the normal differences between people such as eye color, hair color and blood type. Although many polymorphisms have no negative effects on a person’s health, some of these variations may influence the risk of developing certain disorders.
Nanotechnology (physics): A branch of technology devoted to producing devices on an atomic scale. A nanometer (nm) is one-billionth of a meter, smaller than the wavelength of visible light and a hundred-thousandth the width of a human hair. Biologists, chemists, physicists and engineers are all involved in the study of substances at the nanoscale. Behavior of substances at the nanoscale can sometimes contradict common sense by behaving erratically. For example, you can't walk up and immediately teleport to the other side of a wall, but at the nanoscale an electron can; it's called electron tunneling. Scientists are experimenting with substances at the nanoscale to learn about their properties and how we might be able to take advantage of them in various applications.
Neutron (physics): The neutron is a particle found in all but one atomic nucleus; only the hydrogen nucleus has no neutron. All other atoms have one or more. The neutron is important in forming a chain reaction in nuclear fission. The absorption of neutrons by other nuclei, exposed to the high neutron densities in nuclear reactors, generates radioactive isotopes useful for a wide variety of purpose.
Nosocomial infection (biology): [no-suh-koh-mee-uhl]A nosocomial infection is one that is acquired in the hospital or a long-term care facility. They are often more serious and dangerous than community-acquired infections because the bacteria in hospitals are more virulent and resistant to typical antibiotics.
Obligate (biology): [ob-li-gut] Able to exist or survive only in a particular environment or by assuming a particular role. Parasites are obligate. A sample of this type is the interaction between fungus and alga forming lichen.
Occultation (astronomy): Complete obscuration of the light of an astronomical body by another astronomical body. A total solar eclipse is the occultation of the Sun by the Moon. Lunar occultations have various scientific uses, particularly in refining our knowledge of lunar topography. Astronomers are able to determine the precise sizes and shapes of planets, asteroids, and satellites, in addition to the temperatures of planetary atmospheres, from occultations of stars.
Oil sand (geology): Oil sands (or tar sands) are a combination of clay, sand, water, and bitumen, a heavy black viscous oil. They are mined to extract the bitumen, which is then refined into oil. The bitumen in oil sands cannot be pumped from the ground; instead oil sand deposits are mined, usually using strip mining or open pit techniques, or the oil is extracted by underground heating. The oil sands in Canada are currently the topic of disagreementbetween environmental activists and Ormat, the company mining them.
Oncogene (biology): [ahn-co-geen] A gene that causes the transformation of normal cells into cancerous tumor cells. Oncogenes are generally mutated forms of normal cellular genes and contribute to converting a normal cell into a cancer cell.
Organic (biology): Consumers are confused about the difference between conventional products marketed as natural and those nutritionally and environmentally superior products that are certified organic. In the majority of cases, "natural" products are greenwashed conventional products, with "natural" label claims neither policed nor monitored. In light of the food system's significant contribution to the climate crisis and the deepening economic troubles facing local food economies, it is more important than ever shop for locally produced organic food. How can you tell is something is organic? Good advice here.
Pahoehoe/a'a (geology): {puh-hoh-ay-hoh-ay, ah-ah] These Hawai'ian words for the different types of lava have been adopted by geolgists who study volcanoes. Pahoehoe is the smooth type of lava that cools into wave-like shapes. It come from the Hawai'ian word hoe, meaning to row, probably because of the swirls on the surface. A'a is more viscous and slower-moving. A'a is a Hawaiian word meaning stony with rough lava.
Panspermia (biology): A theory propounded in the 19th century in opposition to the theory of spontaneous generation. It holds that reproductive bodies of living organisms exist throughout the universe and develop wherever the environment is favorable. Panspermia Theory suggests that life seeds came from outer space and planets exchanged life. It also suggests that life could have existed on another planet and moved to Earth.
Pavlovian (biology): Ivan Petrovich Pavlov is most famous for developing the concept of the conditioned reflex. In his classic experiment he trained a hungry dog to salivate at the sound of a bell by conditioning the dog to associate the sound of the bell with the sight of food. Pavlov's research into the physiology of digestion led him to create a science of conditioned reflexes. In 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. The reflex is the building block of Pavlovian conditioning; a form of learning that involves the pairing of stimuli independent of an organism's behavior.
pH (general): A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, numerically equal to 7 for neutral solutions, increasing with increasing alkalinity and decreasing with increasing acidity. The pH scale commonly in use ranges from 0 to 14. Each unit of change represents a tenfold change in acidity or alkalinity. The pH of a solution is important in many fields, especially medicine but also geology and agriculture.
Phenotype (biology): The observable characteristics of an organism, as determined by both genetic makeup and environmental influences. Also, the expression of a particular trait; skin color, height, behavior, etc. The genotype of a person is her or his genetic makeup. It can pertain to all genes or to a specific gene. For example, if a child's genotype includes the gene for brittle bone disease (osteogenesis imperfecta), the slightest trauma leads to broken bones. The gene is the genotype, and the brittle bones themselves are the phenotype.
Pheromone (biology): A chemical that is secreted by an animal, especially an insect, and that influences the behavior or development of others of the same species. The first pheromone ever identified (in 1956) was a powerful sex attractant for silkworm moths. Some studies suggest that humans may also respond to some chemical signals from other people. Of course, this led to a quick jump on the bandwagon and now one can purchase dubious pheromone perfumes.
Photoelectric (physics): The photoelectric effect refers to the emission of electrons from the surface of a metal in response to incident light. Energy contained within the incident light is absorbed by electrons within the metal, giving the electrons sufficient energy to be emitted from, the surface of the metal. The photoelectric effect is perhaps the most direct and convincing evidence of the existence of photons and of the nature of light and electromagnetic radiation.
Photon (physics): The quantum of electromagnetic energy, generally regarded as a discrete particle having zero mass, no electric charge, and an indefinitely long lifetime. Photons are always in motion and, in a vacuum, have a constant speed of light to all observers. Photons act as both a wave and a particle; it's common( but basically incorrect) to say that it's sometimes a wave and sometimes a particle depending upon which features are more obvious at a given time.
Phylogeography (biology): Phylogeography is a young and fast-growing field that analyzes the geographical distribution of genealogical lineages. It sprang out of new techniques that made it possible to determine DNA sequence variation from individuals across a species range, and hence to reconstruct gene genealogies. Today, a range of DNA techniques, combined with new analytical methods and recent palaeoclimatic and geological studies are providing important insight into the distribution of genetic diversity around the globe.
Piezoelectric (physics): [payee-zoh-ee-lek-trik] The generation of electricity in crystals subjected to mechanical stress. Quartz demonstrates this property and is extremely stable. Certain crystals, most notably the quartz family, can convert mechanical pressure into electrical energy; the stylus on a record player is a good example of this. When pressure is applied to quartz crystals, the crystal lattice becomes temporarily deformed. The positive silicon ions move to one side of the crystal, while the negative oxygen ions move to the other side. This results in the opposite faces developing different and powerful electrical charges.
Plasma (physics): In medicine, it is the clear, yellowish fluid portion of blood, lymph, or intramuscular fluid in which cells are suspended. Blood plasma is used in the treatment of many ailments, especially hemophilia and is vital in treating severe burns. In physics, plasma is an electrically neutral, highly ionized gas composed of ions, electrons, and neutral particles. It is often called the 4th state of matter.
Prion (biology): A microscopic protein particle similar to a virus but lacking nucleic acid. A prion is a protein that occurs normally in a harmless form. By folding into an aberrant shape, the normal prion turns into a rogue agent. Prions have been held responsible for a number of degenerative diseases, including mad cow disease, Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease, fatal familial insomnia, kuru, Gertsmann-Straeussler-Scheinker disease, and possibly some cases of Alzheimer's disease. Dr. Stanley B. Prusiner received the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of prions.
Prophylaxis (general): Prevention of or protective treatment for disease. Primary prophylaxis is any measure taken to prevent disease before it occurs; having regular teeth cleaning by a dentist, for example. The cleaning helps to prevent plaque, tooth decay, and gum disease. Secondary prophylaxis refers to procedures that help to prevent infection after exposure to a disease or to ease symptoms associated with an illness or health condition. For example, if a health care worker is exposed to the HIV/AIDS virus, they will take an antiretroviral drug to help prevent them from contracting the disease.
Protein folding (biology): The DNA transcription-translation process is well known and can be modeled on a computer. But when the linear amino acid sequence is formed from mRNA (messenger RNA), it folds up to form a three dimensional structure; the functional protein. This protein now interacts with other proteins and this interaction mediates the functions of the organism. For about forty years science has been trying to understand how proteins fold up in nature. Solving the folding problem has enormous implications: exact drugs can be designed, drugs which will fit, lock and key fashion, into the proteins. Research continues.
Protolanguage (biology): A protolanguage is the common ancestor of the language. Sometimes the German term Ursprache (from Ur primordial + Sprache language) is used. A protolanguage may be reconstructed by comparing different members of the language family (like ProtoIndoEuropean) or it can be attested to in surviving texts (like the Romance languages). The first systematic reconstructions of an unattested proto-language were offered by August Schleicher in 1861 for Proto-Indo-European.
Quantum mechanics (physics): Simply put, quantum mechanics is a mathematical machine for predicting the behaviors of microscopic particles. Quantum particles move from one point to another as if they are waves but they always appear as discrete lumps of matter. Mathematically, the theory is well understood; we know what its parts are, how they are put together, and why the whole thing performs the way it does but there is very little agreement about what the world is like according to quantum mechanics. Disagreement centers on the question of what a microscopic world is like intrinsically, or how those apparatuses could themselves be built out of microscopic parts of the sort the theory describes. Four basic principles of quantum mechanics are: physical states, physical quantities, composition and dynamics. The large scale requires relativity theory, and the small scale requires quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics deals with "Nature as She is... absurd."
Quark (astronomy): Quarks are fundamental matter particles that are constituents of neutrons and protons and other hadrons. There are six different types of quarks. Each quark type is called a flavor; up, down, charm, strange, to and bottom. Quarks only exist inside hadrons because they are confined by the strong force fields and we cannot measure their mass by isolating them. Quarks and leptonsare the building blocks which build up matter, they are seen as the "elementary particles."
Quasar (astronomy): When radio telescopes were first turned on the heavens, point sources of radio waves were discovered. But in some places where point sources of radio waves were found, no visible source other than a stellar-looking object was found. These objects were called quasi-stellar radio sources, quasars for short. It was discovered that these sources could not be stars in our galaxy, but must be very far away. We now think these objects are the very bright centers of some distant galaxies, where some sort of energetic action is occurring. Some scientists think they are due to the presence of a supermassive black hole at the center of that galaxy.
Radiometric dating (biology): Measuring the rate of radioactive decay by measuring the ratio of lead to uranium in a rock sample. As the uranium in rocks decays, it emits subatomic particles and turns into lead at a constant rate. Measuring the uranium-to-lead ratios in the oldest rocks on Earth gave scientists an estimated age of the planet of 4.6 billion years. In the 1700s Scottish geologist James Hutton, who observed sediments building up on the landscape, set out to show that rocks were time clocks.
REM sleep (biology): A stage in the normal sleep cycle during which dreams occur and the body undergoes various physiological changes, including rapid eye movement, loss of reflexes, and increased pulse rate and brain activity. During sleep, the body cycles between non-REM and REM sleep; a period of non-REM sleep followed by a very short period of REM sleep. Dreams generally occur in the REM stage of sleep.
Retrovirus (biology): Retroviruses are viruses that incorporate their genetic code into host cells through means of enzymes which makes the virus part of the cell's own genetic information. Retroviruses can be difficult to detect and are the root cause of AIDS, cancer and other diseases.
Sars (biology): Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a serious form of pneumonia, caused by a virus isolated in 2003. The story of sars is a dramatic example of how world travel can quickly spread a disease and how quickly a networked health system can respond to an emerging threat. This model may be extremely important in the future, unfortunately.
Schrödinger equation (physics): At the beginning of the twentieth century, experimental evidence suggested that atomic particles were also wave-like in nature. So it was reasonable to assume that a wave equation could explain the behavior of atomic particles. Erwin Schrodinger was the first person to write down such a wave equation. The Schrodinger equation is used to find the allowed energy levels of quantum mechanical systems
Solar flare (astronomy): A solar flare is an explosion that occurs in the solar corona and chromosphere within the atmosphere of the Sun. The energy of a solar flare is equivalent to tens of millions of atomic bombs exploding at the same time. Solar flares produce electromagnetic radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum at all wavelengths from long-wave radio to the shortest wavelength Gamma rays. This is why they can affect communications here on Earth at times.
Stem cell (biology): Stem cells are unspecialized cells capable of renewing themselves through cell division, sometimes after long periods of inactivity. Under certain conditions they can be induced to become tissue- or organ-specific cells with special functions. Stem cells have the remarkable potential to develop into many different cell types in the body. Given their unique regenerative abilities, stem cells offer new potential for treating diseases. Scientists are already using stem cells in the laboratory to screen new drugs and to develop model systems to study normal growth and identify the causes of birth defects. Thanks to our new President, stem cell research is no longer in a stall.
String theory (physics): The belief that all physical matter is made up of vibrating elements called strings, it differs from traditional physics, in which all matter is made up of ball-like particles. In string theory, the elementary particles we observe in particle accelerators could be thought of as musical notes or excitation modes of elementary strings. There are two basic types of string theories: those with closed string loops that can break into open strings and those with closed string loops that can't break into open strings. This video simplifies it for us non - physicists.
Superfluid (physics): A superfluid is a special phase of matter in which, when cooled to temperatures near absolute zero, the molecules exhibit strange quantum effects. Some superfluids, (helium-4, for instance) are bosons and therefore form a Bose-Einstein condensate when cooled into liquid form. One effect of this is that the viscosity of superfluid helium-4 becomes zero the normal rules of surface tension, such as capillarity, are no longer obeyed. A superfluid in a glass tube will literally "crawl" up the side of the tube in a thin film because of this property. Yikes!! The blob lives!
Supersymmetry (physics): In order to include fermions in string theory, there must be a special kind of symmetry called supersymmetry, which means for every boson (particle that transmits a force) there is a corresponding fermion (particle that makes up matter). So supersymmetry relates the particles that transmit forces to the particles that make up matter. Supersymmetry is a theoretically attractive possibility for several reasons. Most important is the fact that it is required by superstring theory. Beyond that is the remarkable fact that it is the unique possibility for a non-trivial extension of the known symmetries of space and time. In other words, parallel dimensions... cool huh? Read more here.
Telomere (biology): The end of a chromosome, a specialized structure involved in the replication and stability of the chromosome. It is a length of DNA monotonously made up of a recurring motif of 6 nucleotide bases together with various associated proteins. Many human cells lose terminal sequences from their chromosomes during the process of cell division, a loss that correlates with the apparent absence of the telomerase enzyme in these cells. There has been great interest in the possible relationship between human telomeres and cellular aging and immortality. This interest includes the possible role for telomerase in treating malignancies.
Teratogen (biology): A teratogen is an agent which can cause a birth defect. It is usually something in the environment that the mother may be exposed to during her pregnancy. These may include: nicotine, alcohol, drugs, radiation, AIDS and rubella. These cause structural abnormalities and abnormal cell masses to develop in the fetus which can lead to serious birth defects.
Terraform (geology): Meaning "earth shaping," terraforming is a hypothetical process of deliberately modifying the atmosphere, temperature, surface topography or ecology of a planet or moon to make it habitable by Earth organisms. There is much discussion lately about the possibility of terraforming Mars.
Tidal force (physics): The ability of one massive object to cause tides on another object nearby. A tidal force comes about because of the differences in gravitational pull on an object due to a large mass around which the object is moving. Tidal forces are one of the reasons it is impossible to have perfectly zero-gravity conditions in orbit. Tidal energy is being experimented with as an energy source.
Time dilation (physics): In physics, the apparent slowing down of moving clocks that is predicted by the special theory of relativity. Special Relativity states that time is measured according to the relative velocity of the reference frame it is measured in. Yeah, it's a little confusing so hereis a good explanation for us non - physicists.
Torino hazard scale (astronomy): The Torino Scale is a way to gauge the potential damage that may occur in the event of an impact from asteroids or other objects from space. As the Richter Scale measures the strength and potential damage from earth quakes, the Torino Scale will now be used to measure the potential for damage from objects striking Earth. The scale goes from 1 (The chance of collision is extremely unlikely...) to 10 (A collision capable of causing a global climatic catastrophe).
Urea (chemistry): When we hear about a fertilizer bomb, we may wonder... why fertilizer? Because of urea. It takes some significant chemistry to convert fertilizer into an explosive but it can be, and has been, done.
Vestigial (biology): Something vestigial occurs or persists as a rudimentary or degenerate structure. Vestigial organs are part of the whole evolution "argument"; the pelvis of whales is a good example. Despite this lack of any need for them, whales still have pelvic bones. They are quite small compared to their counterparts in other animals, but they exist. .Wwhy would a whale, which doesn't need pelvic bones to move, have pelvic bones that are homologous to creatures that do need pelvic bones to move? The only explanation that makes sense is if these creatures evolved from a common ancestor along with all the other tetrapods.
Wave function (physics): In quantum mechanics, a variable quantity that mathematically describes the wave characteristics of a particle. The value of the wave function of a particle at a given point of space and time is related to the likelihood of the particle’s being there at the time. Wave function is an important aspect of the Schrödinger equation.
Xerophyte (biology): [zee-roh-fite] A type of plant that is well-adapted to water shortages and exhibits adaptations that enable it to store or conserve water. Plants like the cactus and other succulents are typically found in deserts where low rainfall amounts are the norm, but xerophytes such as the bromeliads can also be found in moist habitats such as tropical forests, exploiting niches where water supplies are limited or intermittent. In desert areas, home owners are encouraged (sometimes by law) to plant xerophytes so as to conserve water resources.
That's a pretty good start. I hope you enjoyed learning about some new things and examining some old stuff; I know I sure learned a lot re