As the seasons change and we move toward winter, stores across the United States have stocked up on candy to sell for Halloween trick or treating. There are costume events and parades, and television movie channels run marathons of spooky films. Where I live in New York’s mid-Hudson Valley, parents from New York City, two hours south, head upstate with their children to go pumpkin picking—to make that perfect Jack-o'-lantern. Though there are conservative church groups who have banned Halloween festivities and proclaimed it “the work of the devil,” Halloween (and its yearly rituals) is here to stay as an American tradition—brought to our shores by waves of migration from Europe, from whence it came.
Since the Middle Ages there had been a tradition of mumming on a certain holiday. It involved going door-to-door in costume, performing short scenes or parts of plays in exchange for food or drink.The custom of trick-or-treating when it is Halloween may come from the belief that supernatural beings, or the souls of the dead, roamed the earth at this time and needed to be appeased. It may otherwise have originated in a Celtic festival, held on 31 October–1 November, to mark the beginning of winter. It was Samhain in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man, and Calan Gaeaf in Wales, Cornwall and Brittany. The festival is believed to have pre-Christian roots. In the 9th century, the Church made 1 November All Saints' Day. Among Celtic-speaking peoples, it was seen as a liminal time, when the spirits or fairies (the Aos Sí), and the souls of the dead, came into our world and were appeased with offerings of food and drink ... It is suggested that trick-or-treating evolved from a tradition whereby people impersonated the spirits, or the souls of the dead, and received offerings on their behalf ...
At least as far back as the 15th century, among Christians, there had been a custom of sharing soul cakes at Allhallowtide. People would visit houses and take soul cakes, either as representatives of the dead, or in return for praying for their souls. Later, people went "from parish to parish at Halloween, begging soul-cakes by singing under the windows some such verse as this: 'Soul, souls, for a soul-cake; Pray you good mistress, a soul-cake!'" They typically asked for "mercy on all Christian souls for a soul cake". It was known as 'Souling' and was recorded in parts of Britain, Flanders, southern Germany and Austria ...
The wearing of costumes, or "guising", at Hallowmas, had been recorded in Scotland in the 16th century and was later recorded in other parts of Britain and Ireland. There are many references to mumming, guising or souling at Halloween in Britain and Ireland during the late 18th century and the 19th century. In parts of southern Ireland, a man dressed as a Láir Bhán (white mare) led youths house-to-house reciting verses—some of which had pagan overtones—in exchange for food. If the household donated food it could expect good fortune from the 'Muck Olla'; not doing so would bring misfortune. In Scotland, youths went house-to-house in white with masked, painted or blackened faces, reciting rhymes and often threatening to do mischief if they were not welcomed. In parts of Wales, peasant men went house-to-house dressed as fearsome beings called gwrachod, or presenting themselves as the cenhadon y meirw (representatives of the dead). In western England, mostly in the counties bordering Wales, souling was common. According to one 19th century English writer "parties of children, dressed up in fantastic costume […] went round to the farm houses and cottages, signing a song, and begging for cakes (spoken of as "soal-cakes"), apples, money, or anything that the goodwives would give them".
Yes, Halloween, has pagan roots intertwined with its Christian overlay. Here in the United States it has also intersected with the celebration of the Day of the Dead, or Dia de los Muertos, especially in areas where there is a large Mexican-American population.
I teach an anthropology class, “Seminar in Witchcraft, Magic and Sorcery,” which is a popular offering each year. It explores the history, rituals, and cultural practices outside the mainstream of the world’s major religious groups. As part of the class, we examine the establishment and spread of “new paganism,” which is gaining adherents in Western countries.
One of the major festivals practiced by neo-pagans is Samhain.
Samhain (pronounced /ˈsɑːwɪn/ SAH-win or /ˈsaʊ.ɪn/ SOW-in, Irish pronunciation: [sˠaunʲ]) is a Gaelic festival marking the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter or the "darker half" of the year. Traditionally, it is celebrated from the very beginning of one Celtic day to its end, or in the modern calendar, from sunset on 31 October to sunset on 1 November, this places it about halfway between the autumn equinox and the winter solstice. It is one of the four Gaelic seasonal festivals, along with Imbolc, Beltane and Lughnasadh. Historically, it was widely observed throughout Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. Similar festivals are held at the same time of year in other Celtic lands; for example the Brythonic Calan Gaeaf (in Wales), Kalan Gwav (in Cornwall), and Kalan Goañv (in Brittany).
Samhain is believed to have Celtic pagan origins and there is evidence it has been an important date since ancient times. The Mound of the Hostages, a Neolithic passage tomb at the Hill of Tara, is aligned with the Samhain sunrise. It is mentioned in some of the earliest Irish literature and many important events in Irish mythology happen or begin on Samhain. It was the time when cattle were brought back down from the summer pastures and when livestock were slaughtered for the winter. As at Beltane, special bonfires were lit. These were deemed to have protective and cleansing powers and there were rituals involving them. Like Beltane, Samhain was seen as a liminal time, when the boundary between this world and the Otherworld could more easily be crossed. This meant the Aos Sí, the 'spirits' or 'fairies', could more easily come into our world. Most scholars see the Aos Sí as remnants of the pagan gods and nature spirits. At Samhain, it was believed that the Aos Sí needed to be propitiated to ensure that the people and their livestock survived the winter. Offerings of food and drink were left outside for them. The souls of the dead were also thought to revisit their homes seeking hospitality. Feasts were had, at which the souls of dead kin were beckoned to attend and a place set at the table for them. Mumming and guising were part of the festival, and involved people going door-to-door in costume (or in disguise), often reciting verses in exchange for food. The costumes may have been a way of imitating, and disguising oneself from, the Aos Sí. Divination rituals and games were also a big part of the festival and often involved nuts and apples. In the late 19th century, Sir John Rhys and Sir James Frazer suggested that it was the "Celtic New Year", and this view has been repeated by some other scholars. In the 9th century AD, Western Christianity shifted the date of All Saints' Day to 1 November, while 2 November later became All Souls' Day. Over time, Samhain and All Saints'/All Souls' merged to create the modern Halloween. Historians have used the name 'Samhain' to refer to Gaelic 'Halloween' customs up until the 19th century.
Here is a Druid community in England celebrating Samhain.
The advent of interest in re-establishing pagan tradition has sparked the development and growth of new communities who gather to worship face-to-face, but the internet has become a resource for many people who may not live in areas with established neo-pagan communities. They can now find information and guidance online. For example, there is a “wikiHow to Host a 'Dumb Supper' for Pagans” as well as one called “wikiHow to Celebrate Samhain.”
Along with exploring ritual practices, there is a growing interest in musical tradition, much of which is Celtic. People who now practice pagan traditions like Samhain and many women who are engaged in women’s spiritual movements are familiar with the music of Lisa Thiel. Here is her celebration of Samhain.
Lyrics
Samhain, Samhain, let the ritual begin, We call upon our sacred ancestors to come in Samhain, Samhain, we call upon our kin, We call upon our dear departed loved ones to come in
The Veil between the worlds is thin Our hearts reach cross the sea of time To bring our loved ones in Samhain, Samhain we honor all our kin We honor those whove gone before As the Great Wheel turns again
Samhain, Samhain we call upon our kin We call upon our Sacred Ancestors to come in Samhain, Samhain we call them to come in We call upon our dear departed loved ones to come in
The Veil between the worlds is thin Our hearts reach cross the sea of time To bring our loved ones in Samhain, Samhain we honor all our kin We honor those whove gone before As the Great Wheel turns again
Samhain, Samhain we call upon our kin We call upon our Sacred Ancestors to come in Samhain, Samhain we call them to come in We call upon our dear departed loved ones to come in
The Veil between the worlds is thin Our hearts reach cross the sea of time To bring our loved ones in Samhain, Samhain we honor all our kin We honor those whove gone before As the Great Wheel turns again
If you are interested in exploring more of the history, the book The Pagan Mysteries of Halloween: Celebrating the Dark Half of the Year by Jean Markale is a good starting point.
A comprehensive examination of the rituals and philosophies of the Celtic holiday of Samhain, the inspiration for Halloween.
Presents the true meaning of this ancient holiday and shows how contemporary observances still faithfully reflect the rituals of pagan ancestors.
Explains why this holiday, largely confined to the English-speaking world since the advent of Christianity, has spread throughout the rest of Europe over the last two decades.
One of humanity's most enduring myths is that the dead, on certain nights of the year, can leave the Other World and move freely about the land of the living. Every year on October 31, when the children of the world parade through the streets dressed as monsters, skeletons, and witches, they reenact a sacred ceremony whose roots extend to the dawn of time. By receiving gifts of sweets from strangers, the children establish, on a symbolic plane that exceeds their understanding, a fraternal exchange between the visible world and the invisible world. Author Jean Markale meticulously examines the rituals and ceremonies of ancient festivities on this holiday and shows how they still shape the customs of today's celebration. During the night of Samhain, the Celtic precursor of today's holiday, the borders between life and death were no longer regarded as insurmountable barriers. Two-way traffic was temporarily permitted between this world and the Other World, and the wealth and wisdom of the sidhe, or fairy folk, were available to the intrepid individuals who dared to enter their realm. Markale enriches our understanding of how the transition from the light to the dark half of the year was a moment in which time stopped and allowed the participants in the week-long festival to attain a level of consciousness not possible in everyday life, an experience we honor in our modern celebrations of Halloween.
For a light-hearted and less academic look at our holiday and its roots, I suggest Halloween: An American Holiday, an American History by Lesley Bannatyne.
Halloween has evolved from the Celtic celebrations of 2,000 years ago to become today the fastest-growing holiday in the country. This, the only book to completely cover All Hallow's Eve, from its beginnings to the present, examines the ancient origins as well as its traditions and celebrations, from costuming to bobbing for apples. Jack-o-lanterns, black cats, and witches are explained. Ghosts, ghouls, and goblins lurk behind every page.
The book traces the contributions of America's immigrants to the holiday, documenting the beliefs each ethnic group has added to the mix. Related recipes, poems, songs, and photos perfectly complement the meticulously documented text. The result is the most educational and entertaining examination of Halloween, its myths, and its truths
alloween, the fastest-growing holiday in the country, offers a unique window on American culture. This volume traces the history of Halloween celebrations from their earliest roots in the British Isles. It also explores the vital influences of the ethnic, religious, and occult heritages of the diverse peoples who settled in America.
Related recipes, poems, songs, and crafts are all included.
One of the things I learned when exploring the tradition of our modern day Halloween was that the ubiquitous pumpkins we are so familiar with are a new world tradition, since pumpkins are a squash native to North America. The Jack-o'-lantern, as we know it, was historically a different vegetable.
The carving of vegetables has been a common practice in many parts of the world, and gourds were the earliest plant species domesticated by humans c. 10,000 years ago, primarily for their carving potential. For example, gourds were used to carve lanterns by the Maori over 700 years ago; the Māori word for a gourd also describes a lampshade. It is believed that the custom of making jack-o'-lanterns at Halloween began in Ireland. In the 19th century, "turnips or mangel wurzels, hollowed out to act as lanterns and often carved with grotesque faces," were used at Halloween in parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. In these Celtic-speaking regions, Halloween was also the festival of Samhain and was seen as a time when supernatural beings (the Aos Sí), and the souls of the dead, roamed the earth. The belief that the souls of the dead roamed the earth at Halloween was also found in other parts of Europe. Jack-o'-lanterns were also made at Halloween in Somerset (see Punkie Night) during the 19th century.
By those who made them, the lanterns were variously said to represent the spirits or supernatural beings,[8] or were used to ward off evil spirits.[9] For example, sometimes they were used by Halloween guisers to frighten people, and sometimes they were set on windowsills to keep harmful spirits out of one's home. It has also been suggested that the jack-o'-lanterns originally represented Christian souls in purgatory, as Halloween is the eve of All Saints' Day (1 November)/All Souls' Day (2 November). At Halloween in 1835, the Dublin Penny Journal carried a lengthy discourse on the legend of "Jack-o'-the-Lantern". In 1837, the Limerick Chronicle refers to a local pub holding a carved gourd competition and presenting a prize to "the best crown of Jack McLantern". The term "McLantern" also appears in an 1841 publication of the same paper. There is also evidence that turnips were used to carve what was called a "Hoberdy's Lantern" in Worcestershire, England at the end of the 18th century. The folklorist Jabez Allies recalls:
In my juvenile days I remember to have seen peasant boys make, what they called a "Hoberdy's Lantern," by hollowing out a turnip, and cutting eyes, nose, and mouth therein, in the true moon-like style; and having lighted it up by inserting the stump of a candle, they used to place it upon a hedge to frighten unwary travellers in the night.
Anthropology professor Dr. Wendy Fonarow speaks at length about Samhain, Halloween, and the tradition of Day of the Dead in this interview.
Halloween, the secret history about the holiday’s pagan roots, and the truth about the strange political and social taboos that we have wrapped the holiday up in are discussed with “indie goddess,” Prof. Wendy Fonarow. We look at how costumes have evolved (for pets and people alike) and explore the history of Day of the Dead, Guy Fawkes day, Wicca New Year’s worship, and humanity’s ritualized fascination with death in this historical explanation of Halloween on the Lip News interview, hosted by Mark Sovel.
GUEST BIO: Wendy Fonarow, PhD, is Professor of Anthropology specializing in ritual and performance. She has studied Halloween and related holidays for more than 20 years starting with her Masters thesis examining the history and meaning of Trick or Treating. Some of the papers she has presented include: “Haunted Houses to Sexy Devils: Trends in Halloween Costuming,” “13 Things You Didn’t Know About Halloween Because You Didn’t Know to Ask,” “Modern Trick or Treating: The Development of the Halloween Hot Spot,” “Day of the Dead and Ancestor Worship,” “Guy Fawkes: The British Halloween or How a Religious Celebration became a Political Holiday,” “The Jack O’Lantern: History, Immigration and Meaning” amongst many others. She also is the author of the book “Empire of Dirt: The Aesthetics and Rituals of British Indie Music” (Music Culture).
Fonarow touches on Dia de los Muertos (or Day of the Dead) in her interview, but it is not her primary focus. For a more detailed examination of a celebration practiced not only in Mexico but in many parts of North America with large Mexican populations, the work of anthropologist Dr. Stanley Brandes should be on your bookshelf.
Skulls to the Living, Bread to the Dead: The Day of the Dead in Mexico and Beyond
Each October, as the Day of the Dead draws near, Mexican markets overflow with decorated breads, fanciful paper cutouts, and whimsical toy skulls and skeletons. To honor deceased relatives, Mexicans decorate graves and erect home altars. Drawing on a rich array of historical and ethnographic evidence, this volume reveals the origin and changing character of this celebrated holiday. It explores the emergence of the Day of the Dead as a symbol of Mexican and Mexican-American national identity.
Skulls to the Living, Bread to the Dead poses a serious challenge to the widespread stereotype of the morbid Mexican, unafraid of death, and obsessed with dying. In fact, the Day of the Dead, as shown here, is a powerful affirmation of life and creativity. Beautifully illustrated, this book is essential for anyone interested in Mexican culture, art, and folklore, as well as contemporary globalization and identity formation.
I knew very little about Dia de los Muertos and its history and traditions until my godson, whose maternal lineage is indigenous Mexican, asked me if he could construct a day of the dead altar in our studio/barn space. He is from Los Angeles but now lives in New York City and his apartment, shared with roommates, didn’t have the space he wanted.
His preparation for construction of the altar started during planting season. He wanted to be sure he had enough marigolds for the celebration. The Aztec marigold, or cempasúchil (from the Nahuatl term for the flower zempoalxochitl), is the traditional flower used on the shrines. For construction of the altar, his mom sent him boxes full of sugar skulls and papel picado (colorful paper cut in designs). He had photographs of his ancestors, and objects representing them. He also prepared traditional Day of the Dead foods, which are placed on the altar and then served to all who come to visit. A wonderful time was had by all!
Here is some detail on the beliefs behind Day of the Dead:
Frances Ann Day summarizes the three-day celebration, the Day of the Dead:
On October 31, All Hallows Eve, the children make a children's altar to invite the angelitos (spirits of dead children) to come back for a visit. November 1 is All Saints Day, and the adult spirits will come to visit. November 2 is All Souls Day, when families go to the cemetery to decorate the graves and tombs of their relatives. The three-day fiesta is filled with marigolds, the flowers of the dead; muertos (the bread of the dead); sugar skulls; cardboard skeletons; tissue paper decorations; fruit and nuts; incense, and other traditional foods and decorations.
— Frances Ann Day, Latina and Latino Voices in Literature
People go to cemeteries to be with the souls of the departed and build private altars containing the favorite foods and beverages, as well as photos and memorabilia, of the departed. The intent is to encourage visits by the souls, so the souls will hear the prayers and the comments of the living directed to them. Celebrations can take a humorous tone, as celebrants remember funny events and anecdotes about the departed...Plans for the day are made throughout the year, including gathering the goods to be offered to the dead. During the three-day period families usually clean and decorate graves; most visit the cemeteries where their loved ones are buried and decorate their graves with ofrendas (altars), which often include orange Mexican marigolds (Tagetes erecta) called cempasúchil (originally named cempoaxochitl, Nāhuatl for "twenty flowers"). In modern Mexico the marigold is sometimes called Flor de Muerto (Flower of Dead). These flowers are thought to attract souls of the dead to the offerings. Toys are brought for dead children (los angelitos, or "the little angels"), and bottles of tequila, mezcal or pulque or jars of atole for adults. Families will also offer trinkets or the deceased's favorite candies on the grave. Some families have ofrendas in homes, usually with foods such as candied pumpkin, pan de muerto ("bread of dead"), and sugar skulls; and beverages such as atole. The ofrendas are left out in the homes as a welcoming gesture for the deceased. Some people believe the spirits of the dead eat the "spiritual essence" of the ofrendas food, so though the celebrators eat the food after the festivities, they believe it lacks nutritional value. Pillows and blankets are left out so the deceased can rest after their long journey. In some parts of Mexico, such as the towns of Mixquic, Pátzcuaro and Janitzio, people spend all night beside the graves of their relatives. In many places, people have picnics at the grave site, as well.
Families tidying and decorating graves at a cemetery in Almoloya del Río in the State of Mexico Some families build altars or small shrines in their homes; these sometimes feature a Christian cross, statues or pictures of the Blessed Virgin Mary, pictures of deceased relatives and other persons, scores of candles, and an ofrenda. Traditionally, families spend some time around the altar, praying and telling anecdotes about the deceased. In some locations, celebrants wear shells on their clothing, so when they dance, the noise will wake up the dead; some will also dress up as the deceased.Public schools at all levels build altars with ofrendas, usually omitting the religious symbols. Government offices usually have at least a small altar, as this holiday is seen as important to the Mexican heritage. Those with a distinctive talent for writing sometimes create short poems, called calaveras (skulls), mocking epitaphs of friends, describing interesting habits and attitudes or funny anecdotes. This custom originated in the 18th or 19th century after a newspaper published a poem narrating a dream of a cemetery in the future, "and all of us were dead", proceeding to read the tombstones. Newspapers dedicate calaveras to public figures, with cartoons of skeletons in the style of the famous calaveras of José Guadalupe Posada, a Mexican illustrator. Theatrical presentations of Don Juan Tenorio by José Zorrilla (1817–1893) are also traditional on this day.
Here’s a brief video overview from The National Hispanic Cultural Center in Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Dr. David Carrasco, historian of religion, anthropologist, and Mesoamerican scholar at Harvard Divinity School describes the contents of a Day of the Dead altar.
Traditional altar construction by a local artist is covered in this news story from California titled “San Jose artist Raquel Burciaga brings Day of the Dead altars to life:”
Tradition and art blend together in an amazing way for Raquel Burciaga, a San Jose artist who has been creating altars for Dia de los Muertos for 22 years. ”It’s a tradition that Latin Americans have — especially Mexicans — and I want to keep that tradition alive,” Burciaga said, “and to keep the culture alive. It’s like an offering to the community.”
The altar is an integral part of Dia de los Muertos — also known as Day of the Dead — a celebration of loved ones and ancestors who have died. Altars often include images of skeletons, photos or other mementos of family members; representations of the sun and moon; and offerings of food and other gifts for the departed. They’re festive and reverent at the same time and can have a lot of artistic flair if they are made by someone with Burciaga’s talent.
Day of the Dead begins Nov. 1, so the month of October is a busy time for Burciaga, who makes several altars for the occasion and buys her materials throughout the year. She has two on display this year at the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Main Library in San Jose — one in the first-floor children’s library and another that is part of an art exhibition on the second and fifth floors, which will be up through Nov. 4. And she will again have an altar as the centerpiece of La Ultima Parada, a daylong artistic celebration on Sunday at the Mexican Heritage Plaza in San Jose (get details at www.laultimaparada.org). Burciaga’s Day of the Dead traditions began in her hometown of Nazas, in the state of Durango, Mexico, where her family would clean and decorate the graves of loved ones. Shortly after arriving in San Jose in the early 1990s, she began making altars here. She’s worked with groups at the Billy DeFrank LGBT Center, where she has volunteered as an AIDS educator, and taught about the traditions at National Hispanic University for several years.
For the last few years I have set up an altar using elements from a mixture of these traditions, including those from my family and foods that represent them. I miss living in New York City where parents brought their kids around for trick or treating. We don’t get any of that out here in the country, so I guess I will have to eat all of the candy I bought—by myself.